开头段 C-E-F结构
Merely based on unfounded assumption and dubious (suspicious) evidence, the statement draws a conclusion that ______.To substantiate the conclusion, the arguer points out evidence that _____. In addition, he indicates that _____. Furthermore, he cites the result of a recent survey in support of this recommendation. At first glance, the author’s argument appears to be somewhat convincing, but further reflection reveals that it omits some substantial concerns that should be addressed to substantiate the argument. In my point of view, this argument suffers from N logical flaws.
最后一句:Close scrutiny of each of these facts, however, reveals that none of them lend credible support to the recommendation.
正文段
合理安排逻辑错误的攻击顺序:三种攻击顺序 1、 按照逻辑错误出现的顺序进行顺序式攻击 2、 按照逻辑错误的主次进行攻击
3、 按照逻辑体系进行让步式攻击(强烈推荐) 举例:如Argument 题库第2题 攻击:地产平均价格翻了三番这个结果未必是由于规定房屋颜色这一做法所导致的,很有可能是来自于其他原因,比如房屋需求量变大,经济发展好了,地段更加热了,因此房价翻番。
即便地产平均价格翻了三番是由于规定房屋颜色的原因,但也只是7年前的一个因果关系,这一趋势为必在将来会延续下去,因为人们有可能不再关注房屋的颜色而关注房屋的大小、地段等其他房屋的特征。
即便地产平均价格翻了三番和房屋规定有原因,同时即便这一趋势也能够延续到将来,但这也只是B社区存在的因果关系和未来趋势,这样一个趋势以及因果关系以后这样一种做法未必能够移植到DA社区。
结尾段
To sum up, this arguer fails to substantiate its claim that _____, because the evidences cited in the analysis does not lend strong support to what the arguer maintains. To make the argument more convincing, the arguer would have to provide more information with regard to _____. Additionally, he would have to demonstrate that _____. Therefore, if the argument had included the given factors discussed above, it would have been more thorough and logically acceptable.
Argument逻辑错误的攻击方法和语言 1、 Survey/Study 调查类逻辑错误
攻击:样本的质量和数量、采样的过程是否科学合理 (1)procedure 过程
A. Selective sample 攻击点:样本选择不随机,不具代表性
攻击技巧:调查对象前一系列限定性词语或修饰词 B. Quantity of the samples 攻击点:样本数量太少 攻击语言:
Unless the surveyors sampled a sufficient number of____ and did randomly across the entire___ spectrum, the survey results are not reliable to gauge___ generally(整体). The number of respondents, in itself, does not ensure representativeness. For example, if the sample included only 某一部分的人, then the results would not doubt suggest____. Or if____, (5000) would account for only a little percentage, which would renders(???) the result of the survey insignificant.
(2)result of the survey
A. Do the statistics make any meaningfulness? B. Are the statistics misleadingly vague?
标志词:all many a number of most 绝对化数量 Percentage proportion 相对比值 两者缺一不可,这个错误很常见
a. 攻击“无相对比值”
The argument tells us that “many” (a number of) _____. However, the speaker fails to indicate the percentage of____. So this evidence is far too vague to be meaningful. b. 攻击“无绝对数值”
The author fails to provide information regarding the absolute number of____. A102
c. Respondents 回应者错误 A115
The respondents must be statistically significant(有意义的) in number and representative of the overall____.
(3)Who conducted the survey?
Cross-bencher 中立的 nonaligned
The surveyor must be cross-bencher/nonaligned. A179
(4)When was the survey conducted? A36
A threshold problem is that the editorial neglects to indicate how recently the survey was actually conducted. When samples are used to make general claims about a particular group, the samples should be close enough in time to the generalization. All we know
in this editorial is that the survey was recently published. The less recent the survey itself, the less reliable the results to indicate current interest levels.
2、Sufficient Evidence and Necessary Condition 充分必要条件类错误 (1)Sufficient Evidence 充分条件 标志词:Once
攻击点:A不充分导致B,B的发生还依赖于其他原因。 A170
语言:a. The argument assumes too hastily that____ will necessarily result in the behavior that the argument predicts. Perhaps_____, Moreover____.
b. The facts that A is not sufficient for the prediction that B.
(2)Necessary Condition 必要条件
A的发生是唯一导致B发生的必要条件
攻击点:没A的发生, 如果有CDE…任何一个到两个因素的发生也可以导致B的发生。
标志词:only extreme A195
语言: The editor’s recommendation depends on the assumption that no factors other than A caused B. However, common sense informs me that this assumption is a poor one. A myriad of other factors, including_____, might just as likely be the cause of____. To be specific _____. Without ruling out these and other possible causes, the editor cannot justifiably conclude that only by___ can____.
3、Cause and Effect Fallacies 因果关系类错误 (1)Non sequitur 无因果类错误 A212
The arguer fails to establish causal relationship between the fact that ___ and the claim that____. This argument is unacceptable unless there is compelling evidence to support the connection between these two events. Perhaps, for example ___ results from ____.
(2)Post hoc, ergo proper hoc 时序因果关系错误
标志词: After this since then because of this therefore A2
语言:Based on the fact___ occurred after____, the editor infers that___ should be responsible for_____. However, the sequence of these events, in itself, does not suffice to prove that earlier development caused the later one. It might have resulted from some other events instead:______---to just a few possibilities. Without ruling out scenarios such as these, the editor cannot establish a cause-and effect relationship between ____ and_____ upon which editor’s the recommendation depends.
(3)Concurrence 同时因果错误
错误机理:在时间轴上的某一个段内或某一个时刻上, AB两个事件同
时发生,但作者在两事件中强行加入了逻辑联系或因果联系。 标志词:Also meanwhile with parallel A85
攻击语言: The argument observes a correlation between A and B, and then concludes that the former is the cause of the latter. However, the argument fails to rule out other possible explanations for A or B. For example ____. Any of these factors might lead to B. Without ruling out all other factors it is unfair to conclude that A is responsible for B.
(4)Confuse the cause and effect 混淆因果关系
攻击机理:首先攻击二者之间可能不存在因果关系;让步,即便真的存在因果关系,但似乎我们通过常理可以看出,更多的可能性是由于B的发生导致A的发生。 A25
攻击语言:It is possible that the mayor has confused cause with effect respecting(关系,说道) the recent developments in Ocean View. Perhaps A was a response to B. Since the mayor has failed to account for(解释) this possibility, the claim that____ is completely unwarranted.
4、Changing Scope Fallacies 范围变化类错误 (1)Different concepts 偷换概念 A167
攻击语言:A threshold(开始,开端) problem involves the definition of A. The arguer fails to define this critical term. If A is defined as B, then how C, is irrelevant to whether B. In short, without a clear definition of A, it is impossible to assess(评估) the strength of the argument.
(2)What is true for a member is also true for the group 个体推整体 A8
攻击语言:The argument resets on(依赖于) the assumption that 个体案例 typify nationwide 整体情况. If this is not the case, then it is entirely possible that 在另一个地方,上述个案的结果不会发生相同的情况。Thus, lacking more marketing information about_____ nationwide, it is difficult to assess the merit of the memo’s recommendation.
(3)Assuming that characteristics of a group apply to each group member 整体推个体
标志词:Throughout the country nationwide statewide all over Overall A206
攻击语言:One problem with the argument is that it assumes that the nationwide {characteristics of a group apply to every member of that group} characteristics about ____applies equally to 个体成员。Yet this might not be the case, for a variety of possible reasons. Perhaps ____; or perhaps ______. Without ruling out such possibilities, the
author cannot justifiably conclude that_______. (4)Average 平均类错误 A240
5、Incomplete Thought 考虑问题不全面
(1)Failing to weigh the advantage and disadvantage thoroughly. 错误机理:单一的考虑问题
A206、96
语言攻击:In addition, the author fails to consider the possible negative impacts brought about by_____.
(2)profit
逻辑错误机理:作者通过做一个事情之后,势必将来会长生一个利润(profit). 利润是两个因素作用的结果。 利润=收入-成本 标志词: Profit profitable A170
让步式攻击,先攻击条件不充分;即便安全性是人们考虑的主要因素甚至是唯一因素,能够给公司带来巨大的收入。但是正如作者所说,雇佣科学家们设计的这套杀灭细菌的工艺有可能制造大量的市场成本,设计成本,工艺成本。同时整个牡蛎市场、海鲜市场的大萧条有可能造成一个牡蛎经营不景气的局面,都有可能阻止利润的长生。(通用!!!) A180
攻击:机会成本、其他成本
The author’s conclusion that_____ is unwarranted. Profit is a factor of not only revenue, but also costs. It’s entirely possible that the costs of_____, or other costs associated with_____, will offset, even outweigh the revenue. Besides, a myriad of other possible occurrence(事件), such as unfavorable economic conditions, might prevent_____ from being as profitable in the foreseeable future as the argument predicts.
6、All things remain unchanged over time 外推类错误
(1)Past condition remain unchanged in the present and future 标志词:具体时间 seven years ago ten years ago last year Trend tendency A2
先攻击时序因果错误,再攻击外推类错误,再攻击错误类比。
攻击语言:The author claims that______, because_______. The author assumes without justification that the background condition have remained the same at different time. The assumption is unwarranted because things rarely remain the same over extended periods of time. There are likely all kinds of difference between A and B. For example, A_____; however B______. Any of these scenarios(假设), if true, would serve to undermine the claim that_______.
(2)Present Conditions will remain unchanged into the future 现在的情况不能推得未来的情况
A240
7、Vague evidence 论据含糊
它的出现标志着让步式攻击在False analogy错误中的出现 (1)promise 承诺类错误(小问题) A225
攻击:他承诺说要采取措施让大公司留在这里,但未必就会履行他的诺言。即便他会努力履行诺言,他未必有能力让大的公司留在这里为居民提供就业机会。即便他能够说服大公司为我们地区居民提供就业机会,他未必能够说服大公司为新移居来的居民提供就业机会。
(2)依存型 False analogy
错误机理:作者A做了某件事,那么B城市或地区应效仿之。 但作者没有提到该事件给A带来的好处。
攻击机理:先攻击依存型False analogy,再攻击False analogy. A43
攻击: 作者没有提供A电影院通过这些豪华设备的引进提高了其票房收入,即使A电影院通过这种措施能够提高收入,但是A与R地处位置不同,决定了他们的消费人群不同。
8、Analogy and comparison 横比与纵比 (1)False analogy 错误类比
攻击方法:首先指出两个地区/国家/行业之间的错误类比;列举两者之间的种种差异;未能排除这些可能的差异的情况下,不能导出结论。 标志词:follow neighboring neighborhood 两个城市/行业的名字
引言句出现的名字、正文未出现 A204、226
攻击语言:The arguer’s recommendation relies on what might be a poor analogy between A and B. The analogy falsely depends on the assumption that______ in both A and B are similar. However, it is entirely possible that A与B存在很大的不同。 In short, without accounting for important possible differences between A and B, the arguer cannot reasonably prove the proposed method will help A_____.
To strengthen the argument, instead of relying on a dubious analogy between A and B, the arguer should support evidence, perhaps by way of survey or a marketing program at A, to prove that [the proposed method will indeed help A]/ A will indeed reap(收获) the similar benefits from the method.
(2)Incomplete or selective comparison 不完整或选择性比较 A223
攻击:作者拿101公路的一段与66公路的一段进行比较,以此来说明M公司的修路水平差,A公司的修路水平高。101公路中的一段开裂并不代表整体修的不好,同时66号公路一段保存良好,不代表整体修得好;即便101公路修的不好,66公路修得好,但这也都是两公司修的诸多公路中的一条,不能由此证明两公司的修路水平;即便M公司的修公
路修的不好,不代表修商业街的水平就一定不好。 两个公路之间的差异:车流量不一样
(3)Comparison and Variation
错误类比:空间上的错误类比 横比 外推类错误:时间上的错误类比 纵比
9、False dilemma 非此即彼类错误(小错误,一句话概括)
攻击机理:作者往往会对一个现象列出两个理由,并否定其中一个理由,从而未加证明的说明是第二个理由。 A47
Even assuming A is not the reason for the B, the author falsely assumes that the B must be attributable to C. This “either-or” argument is fallacious in that it ignores other possible causes of the B. For example, perhaps 其他可能原因,or perhaps 其他可能原因。 10、Unwarranted Assumptions 无理假设
调查类错误 因果类错误 错误类比 外推类错误
The author falsely depends on gratuitous(无理由的) assumptions that____. However, no evidence is stated in the argument to support this assumption. For example, it is most likely that_____. Therefore, the argument is unwarranted without ruling out such possibility.(万能!!!) 11、Hasty generalization 急于概括类错误 A168、172
In addition, the arguer commits a fallacy of hasty generalization. Even if A, it does not follow that B. It is highly possible that other factors may have contributed to B. For instance _____. Besides, the arguer does not provide any solid information concerning B. Without ruling out these and other possible factors that give rise to B, the author cannot confidently conclude that____.
题目逻辑错误的综合讲解 A2
1、时序因果错误 2、外推类错误 3、错误类比 A3
1、因果关系类错误: 去大型合伙事务所就职的法学院毕业生数量下降和小型事务所就职的毕业生数量的增加未必是薪水的原因,因为选择公司还和发展空间、工作性质等因素有关
2、外推类错误: 即便三年前到大型事务所就职的数量在下降,不能保证现在及以后会延续这样一个趋势。
3、调查类错误:这个调查只调查了一年级的学生,which不能代表毕业生,同时这个调查也只调查了法学院的一年级学生,which不能代表其他专业的学生,同时这个调查只调查了顶尖法学院,which不能代表M地区所有其他法学院的就业情况。 A6
1、 profit问题:盈利不能保证。市场是好的,但是赚钱不但与好的市场有关,而且和好的经营有关。因此,断然认为会产生利润,是不可取的。
2、 作者认为喜欢爵士乐的人越来越多,因此断然认为这些人回去JAZZ Club,
实际上听爵士乐的方式很多,电台、CD,这些喜欢爵士乐的人未必是新开的俱乐部的消费者。同时他们在爵士乐上的消费未必包含了去爵士俱乐部的费用。
3、 外推+全国性研究:去年形式良好,未必延续到将来;同时全国性研究只代表全国情况。 A8
1、 收购:公司合并涉及到许多问题,比如企业文化,涉足产业、经营管理问题,这些不同都有可能导致1+1<1这样一个商业领域现象。(考虑问题不全面) 2、 外推:只说了该公司去年利润20%,但该公司将来持续的盈利表现又是如何;没有任何证据证明这样一个势头在今后可以得到保持。
3、 个体推整体:D.S.只是在相对较小的区域取得了成功,不能代表它就能符合其他地区人们的口味和喜好,因此作者最终说在全国地区推广M.S.的D.S.商品,当然不能导致他所说的成功。 A12
1、 作者错误的假设了工伤事故的原因是工人睡眠不足和疲劳,而论者没有提供任何这方面的资料,因此事故的发生可能是由于其他原因导致的,例如:技术操作违规、技术落后等。
2、 即便工作事故的确是由于疲劳导致的,但作者错误的假设了疲劳是由于工作时间过长或工作不合理导致的,也可能是由于其他的原因导致的。
3、 即便工作事故是由于疲劳和工作时间过长导致的,但这只是邻近工厂的情况,两个工厂工作属性的不同,事故原因不同,导致同样的做法未必能够引入到我工厂中。 A13
1、 没有任何证据表明现在在市场上非常期待作者的第四本书;即便作者所说的前三本书卖的好,不代表也不能保证第四本书卖的同样好。(外推类错误) 2、 书和电影卖得好,也不代表根据第四本书改编的游戏卖的好。因为书、电影、游戏三者的消费群未必一样。(无理论据)
3、 节约的只是时间成本,未必能节约金钱成本。正如作者所说(以彼之道还施彼身),购买生产权代价高昂,会给公司带来财政上的短期压力,这些成本可能会超过在可预见的将来的收入。 A21
1、 作者错误地假设了有很好的需求就会导致利润的产生,同时作者没有分析最大竞争对手不再生产的原因,而这个原因可能是需求已经没有了。(无理假设) 2、 五年来服装价格在上升,但这也只是过去5年的趋势,不能表示将来服装的价格就会上升;同时,即便将来服装价格上升,未必羊毛外衣的价格会上升。(外推+FA错误)
3、 作者错误地认为消费者会花更高的价格购买羊毛外衣,因为市场有可能萧条导致收入下降,以及市场对于已经淡出市场5年的公司的品牌已经陌生,公司需要重新做广告,建立分销商等,这种成本的投入,收入的下降,在短期内不但不会有利润,反而可能引来财政的赤字。 A23
1、 虽然论者提到了本市的海鲜消费增加了30%,但只说明了海鲜食品受到了人们的欢迎,不代表专门的海鲜饭店将受到人们的欢迎。(差异概念)
2、 本市的家庭多为双收入,全国范围内这类家庭较少在家做饭,更关心健康饮
食,这与专门海鲜餐馆是否盈利并无直接关系。因为没有任何证据证明这种双收入家庭更愿意到专门海鲜店消费,或是更愿意吃海鲜。也没有证据证明他们认为到专门的海鲜店吃饭回避吃其他东西更健康。全国范围内的情况也未必会映射到本地情况。(因果关系的无理假设+从整体推个体)
3、 即便承认市场需求更好,但是否可以盈利还取决于其他的方面;同时一个新的海鲜馆的建立带来的成本投入,在可预见的将来可能会超过收入,带来财政上的赤字。(利益话题) A38
1、 作者引用了东部的一个研究说明当地人吃鱼多,每年只到医院看两次感冒。首先,去医院看两次感冒不代表感冒次数真的就少;即便东部地区的人感冒次数的缺少,但是未必是由于吃鱼的原因,很有可能是由于其他原因导致的; 2、 即便东部的人感冒次数少而只是由于吃鱼的原因导致的,但是东部的做法未必就能够拿到西部去用。
3、 即便西部也可以通过吃鱼来预防感冒,但是作者建议说每天服用L物质,一种从鱼油中提炼出的营养物质,吃鱼能够防止感冒,但这不意味着吃L物质也能预防感冒。(差异概念) A43
1、 攻击调查:样本选择是否随机、是否具有代表性、样本数量是否足够多;被调查者是否说了真话 2、 依存型FA和FA
3、 Profit问题:带来巨大成本 A44
1、 依存型FA和FA:作者没有任何资料证明R通过加入咖啡厅能使顾客增加,收入增加;即便R的确通过加入咖啡厅使得收入有所上升,但是R和M书店存在着诸多的差异。
2、 作者引用了全国人口普查“10岁以下儿童在总人口中所占的比例将显著下降”,比例下降并代表整体数量下降;同时即便整体数量下降,不代表当地儿童数量的下降;同时即便本地儿童数量下降,不代表本地10岁以下来书店看书的儿童数量在下降。
3、 开咖啡厅即使能够带来好处,但是也会带来负面影响。比如:损失儿童书籍的销售等。 A67
1、 因果关系错误:作者错误地假设了纳税居民数量的下降是由于垃圾部门服务不好造成的,而实际上有可能是由于其他原因造成的。
2、 这两种合并都未必能节省开支,因为合并又可能给居民带来不便,带来时间上和成本上更大的开支。另外投诉少不代表居民满意度高。 3、 去年P图书馆使用量减少不代表以后依然会继续减少下去,有可能将来会日益增多,随着读者人群的扩大和读者数量的增多(外推类错误)
4、 即便垃圾收集部门合并获得了成功,将来也会取得更大的成功,但并不代表图书馆合并可以取得相同的成功,两个部门完全不同,而且给公众带来的便利性也不一样;即便通过合并图书馆能够带来效益,但是到底关闭哪一家,作者不能武断地认为就要关闭P使用C。 A76
1、 攻击调查样本是否具有代表性以及样本数量是否足够多。
2、 作者没有提供任何的可靠证据来证明面部改善这一结果是使用了L面霜所导致的,有可能是由于其他原因导致的。(因果关系错误) 3、 所有论据里的主观行为,都是不能依存于他们得出结论。 A78(难)
1、 首先作者错误地假设了是外因发生改变而内因没有发生改变,得出林地变成草原的结论。很有可能是动物的内因发生了变化,以至于他们共同生活在同一区域内。
2、 作者错误地假设了发现动物骨头的所在地,正是动物的栖息地,但有可能是两个地方,正如作者所说,是人类猎杀野生动物造成的。
3、 即便这个区域从林地变成了草原,但是没有任何证据说明是由于气候变化造成的,很有可能是由于文中所提到的是由于人类的史前行为导致的。 A82
1、 作者无理地假设了木炭对环境的影响小,但是木炭是由木材转换而来的,同样会导致林木资源的减少。
2、 木炭产生的烟少不代表产生的空气污染小,很可能木炭的不充分燃烧释放的气体的毒性更加污染大气。
3、 尽管同等热量所需要的木炭少,但是数量上的差异不等于价格上的差异,因此作者所说的无经济障碍转换时不能得到保证的。 A86
1、 作者无理地假设了学生花在阅读上的时间越多,其阅读能力就越强。实际上学生阅读能力的提高还取决于其他因素的共同作用。
2、 即使学校取消了体育课,但学生未必会花更多的时间在阅读课上,同时取消体育课有可能带来一些负面影响。
3、 尽管学校无需扩建,只解决了一时的问题,没有考虑到长久发展问题。 A89
1、 作者无理地假设了取消高速公路的限速,车速就会提高。此外,商业利润、物流与高速公路的限速是否有必然联系,是不能够得到保证的。
2、 通过取消限速,未必可以使更多的人使用高速公路,因为还要考虑到收费问题等。
3、 作者拿西部取消限速的情况来说明本州也可以采取这个做法,这是不能得到保证的。 A94
1、 作者无理地假设了这种房子会增加利润,因为没有证据根据表明D.C.在盈利;即便它在盈利,也不代表其他地区的房子这样做以后也会卖得更好。同时卖的快,卖的高不代表盈利多。
2、 攻击调查样本选择是否随机、是否具有代表性,样本数量是否足够多;同时全国性调查不能代表本地区的喜好趋势。
3、 作者认为可以通过减小庭院的尺寸来增加盈利,这种做法明显地忽略了这种做法可能带来对我们公司信誉的质疑;同时,没有抱怨不代表满意;即便现在满意,也不代表以后同样满意。 A95
1、 攻击调查:洲际调查无法映射我们镇的调查,而且10%的相对比值太少,不能说明私人办学的一种趋势。
2、 正如作者所说,我们镇的私立学校上报的注册人数增加,不代表公立学校人
数减少;无子女退休夫妇的数量增加不代表要上学的孩子的数量会减少,这些家长所占的比例可能很小,这样一个趋势也未必能延续下去。
3、 即便不需要建新的公立学校,也不应该减少对公立学校的资助,这样做的负面作用在于私立越来越多,公立越来越少,教学的统一性,质量得不到保障,管理上存在一些长期的弊端。我们要综合考虑是否真的减少对公立学校的资助。
Issue 论证方法 1、 引用
2、 正反论证 3、 比喻论证
4、 类比——可有效地扩展文章的内容 5、 事实论证——弥补说理不足 6、 引申法
7、 定义法解析
举例常用句式
A variety of scientist/politician can be cited to illustrate this point While such cases are rare, they do occur occasionally. One telling historical example involves…
引用
As a proverb goes … which is to say…
“Knowledge is power.” Such is a remark of Bacon, one of the greatest famous educators.
According to a well-known scientist X, and I paraphrase … Which is to say/This illustrate the point that…
According a recent survey, we can estimate that…
全局变量类词汇
1、表明了 indicate reveal confirm reflect demonstrate convey imply illustrate
2、重要的 vital crucial essential significant profound
Play a key role
3、我认为 I guess I suppose I assume I maintain that
I insist that personally from the personal perspective in my eyes
In my view I am convinced that
4、事件、现象 issue(事件、问题、话题) incident event occurrence
5、热门的 heated urgent burning pressing pervasive(流行的) rampant(泛滥的) prevalent(流行的) 6、面临、见证 confront encounter witness(见证) 7、争议、争论 controversy debate contend dispute
8、难以解决的,棘手的 intractable involved troublesome Tough stubborn 9、解决方案 solution approach recipe scheme
10、有效的迅速的 valid sound effectual efficacious Potent
话题型issue词汇
Counterproductive 适得其反的,产生相反效果的 e.g. It is counterproductive to be too tough; it just makes the staff resentful. Over-extended competition will be counterproductive. Seminal 萌芽的,潜在的;开创性的;有重大影响的 e.g. in the seminal state 在萌芽状态
seminal thought 初始的想法,具有原创性的想法 seminal principle 基本原则 forgo 放弃 e.g. The choice to forgo his security is always available, although it might carry
unpleasant consequence. Intuition 直觉
Satisfy 证明是正当的,公正的,为…寻找理由 Resort to 诉诸于
Hinge on 以…为转移,靠…转移 Lend some credence to… 提供支持 Dimension 大小;范围;程度
e.g. I did not realize the dimension of the problem. Inspire sb to do sth
Provide necessary impetus for… 给予…动力 Paradigm 范例,典范 Nascent 初生的
Irrespective of whether 无论如何 e.g. we must invest in research irrespective of whether the results might be controversial.
Draw a distinction between 对…加以区别 Catalyst 催化剂;刺激因素 Proviso 限制性条款;附带条件 Proceeding 行动,进行;会议 International proceeding
Unprecedented 空前的,史无前例的
Inexorable 坚持不懈的,不可阻挡的,不可动摇的 Take precedence over 居先于,优先于 Serve as a substitute for 取代 Emerge from 来源于
名人 celebrity elite personality notable figures 普遍,普及 prevailing 灌输;教育
Instill impart inculcate foster(养育,抚育,培养,鼓励) Nurture(养育,教养) 若干重,若干刃
A double-edged sword 双刃剑
A two-edged weapon 双重武器
Twofold/threefold/manifold 双重、三重、多种 消除、减轻
Eliminate 消除、排除 Undermine 破坏、削弱 Diminish 减少 恶化、加剧
Exacerbate 恶化,使加剧
过度,过分 exorbitant 过度的,过高的 Undue 过度的,过分的 导致,造成
Pose 引起某事物、造成 Render
Breed 导致,造成
Burgeon 迅速发展,发芽
Outgrowth 长出,派出,结果,副产物 n. 探求 seek to
Strive to do; strive for Probe 探索;探查 资助、赞助
Patron 赞助人 On the patronage of Under the auspices of 增强,提高
Enhance/promote/augment/elevate Escalate
逻辑连接类词汇 一、 表示先后次序的词汇
之前地 previously anteriorly 同时地 simultaneously
最后地 ultimately eventually 其次 posteriorly 二、 表示因果关系的词汇
Being that 因为 owing to 由于 in virtue of 由于
In view of 考虑到 in respect that 因为 on account of 由于
Consequently hence inevitably(不可避免地) resultingly(由于,因此) Thereupon whereupon 三、 转折
Whereas 然而 instead conversely notwithstanding 四、 递进
Furthermore withal ulteriorly(进一步地) detaily(详细说) Minutely(详细地) 五、 类比
Similarly in like manner likewise analogously(类似地) Approximately(近似地,类似地) 六、 强调
Especially particularly determinately(确定地) authentically(确定地) Undoubtedly(毋庸置疑地) undeniablely(无可否认地)
definitely(明确地) demonstrably(确然) assuredly(确实地)
分领域、分层次论述——扩展内容
文章开头方式
1、 陈述问题+立场申明
2、 陈述相互冲突的观点+表明立场(语言质量更高) 3、 问句+典型回答+自己的立场陈述 4、 问句+立场
5、 题目观点/改写原题+回答(应用较多) 6、 申明立场+简要说明理由 7、 格言/引语+自己立场
1、 观点对比开头
There is a public controversy now concerning the issue of…
Well, some argue that… Others on the other hand believe that… As far, I am concerned… 2、 分领域性开头
In my point of view, the speaker 莽撞地 generalized…In some areas… However, in other areas particularly…in still other areas, such as…, the situation varies from case to case. 3、 问题解决型开头+疑问句
Determine whether sth. Should or should not be done could be weighed in many aspects. People’s opinions are divergent on such a controversial issue. The author claims that…
Well, I admit that… However, it oversimplifies this issue. In my point of view, the final judgement should depend on a case-by-case analysis.
Issue结尾段
重申立场+总结理由
For the reasons presented above, I strongly commit to the notion that… Not only because…but also because…
Therefore, it is imperative(紧急的,必要的) that…
Issue正文段的文字组织
(全文至少450-500 开头+结尾150) 提倡正反论证
八股文的六段论的文章结构示例
第一段 第二段 第三段 第四段 第五段 The discussion of this issue among individuals and society as
a whole has come into vogue(流行起来) during the last decade. People’s opinions are divergent on such a complex and controversial issue. The author declares that___. However, it oversimplifies this issue. The final judgment, in my point of view, should depend on a case-by-case analysis.
First and foremost, at the risk of sounding too simplistic, my
main proposition for this issue can be summarized in one saying that___. What is more, I approve the statement that___ without reservation in respect that(因为)____. As a consequence, it is imperative that____. Let’s bring our discussion here to a more present and practical context, it can be given a concrete example: _____.Meanwhile, according to a recent survey, we can estimate that____.
第二个分支理由 From the personal perspective, another
essential factor why I advocate______ relates to/involves the realm of_____. No one can deny the fact that_____. Moving on to wider themes, ____. History is replete with evidence to illustrate this point. A notable case in point is that_____. 如果后面有一层类比:
By the same token(出于同样原因)/similarly, ____.
任何事物再好,但过度了也会有弊端。
文章在此处可以进行一个适当的让步,也可以把文章的整个体系颠倒过来。如:在开头段反对某观点,正文中逐段阐述自己的理由。之后可以转折说:我们必须要承认的是适度的_____也会带来一定好处。
However, we should concede that despite the merits of____ mentioned above, it is undisputable that overextended______ will be counterproductive, even harmful. The harm it produces is, in my view, both palpable and profound. For the individual, it has a debasing impact on____; for the society, it may promote the tendency that____.
讲述怎样做才能消除有可能带来的负面影响。
To successfully curb such unfavorable trends, several efficacious steps should be taken into consideration seriously in course. In the first place, we should appeal to the government to work out relevant regulation to ____. In the second place, we should cultivate and enhance people’s
第六段
awareness that____. In the third place, we should pour more investment into some fields.
From what I have discussed above, we may safely come to the conclusion that______, not only because_____, but also because_____, but it depends on______.(首位呼应)
正文前两段从正面论述,或者说是第一、二层面的支持理由;第三段适当的让步,阐述过度产生的负面影响;第四段针对不良效果给出一些有效的解决方案。 灵活使用,替换用词。套用模板——雷同!
推荐问句开头
短期利益和长期研究
美国火星探测计划——短期没有利益 长期研究和迫在眉睫的问题都要解决 e.g. 美国著名牧师兼演说家比切的话: We should so live and labor in our time that we came to us as seed may goto the next generation as blossom and what came to us as blossom may goto them as fruit. This is what we mean by progress.
“克里奥”奖是美国每年对于广播电视商业广告中做出杰出成绩的人的表彰,它在行业中就相当于电影界中的奥斯卡。
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