胡壮麟语言学教程汉语

《语言学教程》汉语解释

第一章  语言的性质 语言的性质 语言的性质语言的定义：语言的基本特征（任意性、二重性、多产性、移位、文化传递和互换性）；语言的功能（寒暄、指令、提供信息、询问、表达主观感情、唤起对方的感情和言语行为）；语言的起源（神授说，人造说，进化说）等。 语言的起源（神授说，人造说，进化说）等。

   第二章   语言学 语言学

语言学定义；研究语言的四大原则（穷尽、一致、简洁、客观）；语言学的基本概念（口语

与书面语、共时与历时、语言与言学、语言能力与言行运用、语言潜势与语言行为）；普通语言学的分支（语音、音位、语法、句法、语义）；；语言学的应用（语言学与语言教学、语言与社会、语言与文字、语言与心理学、人类语言学、神经语言学、数理语言学、计算语言学）等。 学）等。

   第三章   语音学 语音学

发音器官的英文名称；英语辅音的发音部位和发音方法；发音器官的英文名称；英语辅音的发音部位和发音方法；语音学的定义；英语辅音的发音部位和发音方法；语音学的定义；发音语音学；听觉发音语音学；听觉语音学；声学语音学；元音及辅音的分类；严式与宽式标音等。 语音学；声学语音学；元音及辅音的分类；严式与宽式标音等。

   第四章  音位学 音位学

音位理论；最小对立体；音位理论；最小对立体；自由变异；最小对立体；自由变异；互补分布；自由变异；互补分布；语音的相似性；互补分布；语音的相似性；区别性特征；语音的相似性；区别性特征；超语段音位学；区别性特征；超语段音位学；

音节；重音（词重音、句子重音、音高和语调）等。 音节；重音（词重音、句子重音、音高和语调）等。

  词法学 第五章  词法学

词法的定义；曲折词与派生词；构词法（合成与派生）；词素的定义；词素变体；自由词素；粘着词素（词根，词缀和词干）等。 粘着词素（词根，词缀和词干）等。

  词汇学 第六章  词汇学

词的定义；语法词与词汇词；变词与不变词；封闭词与开放词；词的辨认；习语与搭配。 词的定义；语法词与词汇词；变词与不变词；封闭词与开放词；词的辨认；习语与搭配。

第七章  句法 句法 句法句法的定义；句法关系；结构；成分；直接成分分析法；并列结构与从属结构；句子成分；范畴（性，数，格）；一致；短语，从句，句子扩展等。 ；一致；短语，从句，句子扩展等。 第八章   语义学 语义学

语义的定义；语义的有关理论；意义种类（传统、功能、语用）；里奇的语义分类；词汇意义关系（同义、反义、下义）；句子语义关系。 ；句子语义关系。 第九章   语言变化 语言变化 语言的发展变化（词汇变化、语音书写文字、语法变化、语义变化）； 第十章  语言、思维与文化 语言、思维与文化 语言、思维与文化语言与文化的定义；萨丕尔-沃夫假说；语言与思维的关系；语言与文化的关系；中西文化的异同。 的异同。 第十一章  语用学 语用学 语用学语用学的定义；语义学与语用学的区别；语境与意义；言语行为理论（言内行为、言外行为和言后行为）；合作原则。 ；合作原则。

1.1.  What is language?  “Language is used for It is “Language is system is system of system of arbitrary of arbitrary vocal symbols arbitrary vocal symbols used for human communication. for human communication. It is a system, is a system, 

since linguistic elements are arranged systematically, rather than randomly. Arbitrary, in the sense 

that there is usually no intrinsic connection between a work (like “book”) and the object it refers to. This to. This explains This explains and explains and is and is explained is explained by explained by the by the fact the fact that fact that different that different languages different languages have languages have different have different “books”: different “books”: 

“book” in English, “livre” in French, in Japanese, in Chinese, “check” in Korean. It is symbolic, because words are associated with objects, actions, ideas etc. by nothing but convention. Namely, people use the sounds or vocal forms to symbolize what they wish to refer to. It is vocal, because sound or speech is the sound or speech is the primary the primary medium primary medium for medium for all for all human all human languages, human languages, developed languages, developed or developed or “new”. or “new”. Writing “new”. Writing systems came much later than the spoken forms. The fact that small children learn and can only learn to speak (and listen) also indicates learn to speak (and listen) before listen) before they write (and read) before they write (and read) also indicates that indicates that language that language is language is primarily is primarily 

vocal, rather than written. The term “human” in the definition is meant to specify that language is human specific. 

1.2.  What are design features of language? 

“Design features” here refer to the defining properties of human language that tell the difference between human language and any system of animal communication. They are arbitrariness, duality, productivity, displacement, cultural transmission and interchangeability 

1.3.  What is arbitrariness? 

By “arbitrariness”, we mean there is no logical connection between meanings and sounds (see I .1). A dog might be a pig if only the first person or group of persons had used it for a pig. Language is therefore largely therefore largely arbitrary. But language But language is language is not is not absolutely not absolutely seem absolutely seem to seem to be to be some be some sound-meaning some sound-meaning association, if like “bang”, are motivated association, if we if we think we think of think of echo words, of echo words, like “bang”, “crash”, “bang”, “crash”, “roar”, which “crash”, “roar”, which are motivated in motivated in a in a certain sense. Secondly, some compounds (words compounded to be one word ) are not entirely arbitrary either. “Type” and “write” are opaque or unmotivated words, while “type-writer” is less so, or more transparent or motivated than the words that make it. So we can say “arbitrariness” is a matter of degree. 

1.4.What is duality?  Linguists refer in all Linguists refer “duality” refer “duality” (of “duality” (of structure) (of structure) to structure) to the to the fact that the fact that in all languages all languages so languages so far so far investigated, far investigated, one investigated, one 

finds two levels of structure or patterning. At the first, higher level, language is analyzed in terms of combinations of meaningful units (such as morphemes, words etc.) ; at the second, lower level, it is seen as a sequence of segments which lack any meaning in themselves, but which combine to form units of meaning. According to Hu Zhanglin et al. (p.6) , language is a system of two sets of structures, one of sounds and the other of meaning. This is important for the workings of language. A small number small number of number of semantic of semantic units semantic units (words), units (words), and (words), and these and these units these units of units of meaning of meaning can meaning can be can be arranged be arranged and arranged and 

rearranged into an infinite number of sentences (note that we have dictionaries of words, but no dictionary of sentences!). Duality makes it possible for a person to talk about anything within his knowledge. No animal communication system enjoys this duality, or even approaches this honour. 

1.5.What is productivity?  Productivity refers Productivity refers to refers to the to the ability the ability to ability to the to the ability the ability to ability to construct to construct and construct and understand and understand an understand an indefinitely an indefinitely large indefinitely large 

number of sentences in one‟s native language, including those that has never heard before, but that are appropriate to the speaking situation. No one has ever said or heard “A red-eyed elephant is dancing on the small hotel bed with an African gibbon”, but he can say it when necessary, and he can understand though, productivity can understand it understand it in it in right in right register. right register. Different register. Different from Different from artistic creativity, from artistic creativity, though, productivity never productivity never 

goes outside the language, thus also called “rule-bound creativity” (by N.Chomsky). the language, thus also called “rule

1.6.What is displacement? 

“Displacement”, as one of the design features of the human language, refers to the fact that one can talk about things that are not present, as easily as he does things present. In other words, one can refer to real and unreal things, things of the past, of the present, of the future. Language itself can be talked about too. to a woman, about something, it can be talked about too. When too. When a When a man, a man, for man, for example, for example, is crying example, is crying to a woman, might be something that had occurred, or something that is occurring, or something that is to occur. When a dog is barking, however, you can decide it is barking for something or at someone that exists now and there. It couldn‟t be bow-wowing sorrowfully for dome lost love or a bone to be 

lost. The bee‟s system, nonetheless, has a small share of “displacement”, but it is an unspeakable tiny share. 

1.7.What is cultural transmission?  This means This means that means that language that language is language is not is not biologically not biologically transmitted biologically transmitted from transmitted from generation from generation to generation to generation, to generation, but generation, but that but that the details the details of details of the of the linguistic the linguistic system linguistic system must system must be must be learned be learned anew learned anew by anew by each by each speaker. each speaker. It speaker. It is It is true is true that true that the that the 

capacity for capacity for language for language in language in human in human beings(N. human beings(N. Chomsky beings(N. Chomsky called Chomsky called it called it “language it “language acquisition “language acquisition device”, acquisition device”, or device”, or LAD) has particular language one LAD) has a has a genetic a genetic basis, genetic basis, but the basis, but the particular language a language a person a person learns person learns to learns to speak to speak is speak is a cultural is a cultural 

other than a genetic one like the dog‟s barking system. If a human being is brought up in isolation he cannot acquire language. The Wolf Child reared by the pack of wolves turned out to speak the wolf‟s roaring “tongue” wHe learned no small difficulty, the roaring “tongue” when he was saved. hen he was saved. He learned thereafter, with He learned thereafter, with difficulty, the ABC of a certain human language. 

1.8.What is interchangeability? 

Interchangeability means that any human being can be both a producer and a receiver of messages. We can say, can say, and on and on oon other occasions ther occasions can occasions can receive can receive and receive and understand, and understand, for understand, for example, for example, “Please example, “Please do “Please do something to something to make to make me make me happy.” me happy.” Though happy.” Though some Though some people some people (including people (including me) (including me) suggest me) suggest that suggest that there that there is there is sex is sex 

differentiation in differentiation in the in the actual the actual language actual language use, language use, in use, in other in other words, other words, men words, men and men and women and women may women may say may say different say different 

things, yet in principle there is no sound, or word or sentence that a man can utter and a woman cannot, or vice versa. On the other hand, a person can be the speaker while the other person is the listener and as the turn moves on to the listener, he can be the speaker and the first speaker is to listen. It is turn-taking that makes social communication possible and acceptable. 

Some male birds, however, utter some calls which females do not (or cannot?) , and certain kinds of fish have similar haps mentionable. When a dog barks, all the neighbouring dogs bark. Then people around can hardly tell which dog (dogs) is (are0 “speaking” and which listening.  1.9.Why do linguists say language is human specific?  First of all, human language has six “design features” which animal communication systems do not have, at least not in the true sense of them(see I .2-8). Let‟s borrow C. F. Hocket‟s Chart that 

compares human language with some animals‟ systems, from Wang Gang(1998,p.8). 

Secondly, linguists have done a lot trying to teach animals such as chimpanzees to speak a human language but have achieved nothing inspiring. Washoe, a female chimpanzee, was brought up like a human child by Beatnice taught “American a human child by Beatnice and Beatnice and Alan and Alan Gardner. Alan Gardner. She was Gardner. She was taught “American sign “American sign Language”, sign Language”, and Language”, and 

learned a little that made the teachers happy but did mot make the linguistics circle happy, for few believed in teaching chimpanzees.  Thirdly, a human child reared among animals cannot speak a human language, not even when he is taken back and taught to lo to so (see the “Wolf Child”in I.7) 

1.10.What functions does language have?  Language has Language has at has at least at least seven least seven functions: seven functions: phatic, functions: phatic, directive, phatic, directive, Informative, directive, Informative, interrogative, Informative, interrogative, expressive, interrogative, expressive, evocative and evocative and performative. and performative. According performative. According to According to Wang to Wang Gang (1988,p.11), Gang (1988,p.11), language has language has three has three main three main 

functions: a tool of communication, a tool whereby people learn about the world, and a tool by which people M .A. K.Halliday, which people learn people learn about learn about the about the world, the world, and world, and a and a tool a tool by tool by which by which people which people create people create art . create art . representative of the London school, recognizes three “Macro-“Macro-Functions”: ideational, interpersonal and textual(see !.11-17;see HU Zhuanglin et al.,pp10-13,pp394-396). 1.    11What is the phatic function?  The “phatic The “phatic function” “phatic function” refers function” refers to refers to language to language being language being used being used for used for setting for setting up setting up a up a certain a certain atmosphere certain atmosphere or atmosphere or maintaining social contacts(rather than for exchanging information or ideas). Greetings, farewells, and comments on the weather in English and on clothing in Chinese all serve this function. Much of the phatic language (e.g. “How are you?” “Fine, thanks.”) is insincere if taken literally, but it is 

important. If you don't say “Hello” to a friend you meet, or if you don‟t answer his “Hi”, you ruin your friendship. 

1.12.         What is the directive function? 

The “directive function” means that language may be used to get the hearer to do something. Most imperative sentences imperative sentences perform sentences perform this perform this function, this function, e. function, e. g., e. g., “Tell g., “Tell me “Tell me the me the result the result when result when you when you finish.” you finish.” Other finish.” Other syntactic structures or sentences of other sorts can, according to J.Austin and J.Searle‟s “indrect speech act theory”(see Hu Zhuanglin et al.,pp271-278) at least, serve the purpose of direction too, e.g., “If I were you, I would have blushed to the bottom of my ears!” 

1.13.What is the informative function?  Language serves used to tell something, characterized Language serves an serves an “informational an “informational function” when “informational function” when used to tell something, characterized bcharacterized by the y the use of declarative sentences. Informative statements are often labelled as true(truth) or false(falsehood). According to P.Grice‟s “Cooperative Principle”(see Hu Zhuanglin et al., pp282-283), one ought not to violate the “Maxim of Quality”, when he is informing at all. pp282-283), one ought not to violate the “Maxim of Quality”, when he i

1.14.What is the interrogative function?  When language is used to obtain information, it serves an “interrogative function”. This includes all questions that expect replies, statements, imperatives etc., according to the “indirect speech act theory”, may have this function as well, e.g., “I‟d like to know you better.” This may bring forth a lot of personal information. Note that rhetorical questions make an exception, since they demand no answer, at least not the reader‟s/listener‟s answer. 

1.15.What is the expressive function?  The “expressive The “expressive function” is function” is the is the use the use of use of language of language to language to reveal to reveal something reveal something about something about the about the feelings the feelings or feelings or attitudes of attitudes of the of the speaker. the speaker. Subconscious speaker. Subconscious emotional Subconscious emotional ejaculations emotional ejaculations are ejaculations are good are good examples, good examples, like examples, like “Good like “Good 

heavens!” “My God!” Sentences like “I‟m sorry about the delay” can serve as good examples too, 

though in a subtle way. While language is used for the informative function to pass judgement on the truth or falsehood of statements, language used for the expressive function evaluates, appraises or asserts the speaker‟s own attitudes. 

1.16.What is the evocative function? 

The “evocative function” is the use of language to create certain feelings in the hearer. Its aim is , for example, for example, to example, to amuse, to amuse, startle, amuse, startle, antagonize, startle, antagonize, soothe, antagonize, soothe, worry soothe, worry or worry or please. or please. Jokes(not please. Jokes(not practical Jokes(not practical jokes, practical jokes, 

though) are supposed to amuse or entertain the listener; advertising to urge customers to purchase certain commodities; propaganda to propaganda to influence to influence public influence public opinion. public opinion. Obviously, opinion. Obviously, the Obviously, the expressive the expressive and expressive and the and the evocative functions often go together, i.e., you may express, for example, your personal feelings about a political issue but end up by evoking the same feeling in, or imposing it on, your listener. That‟s also the case with the other way round. 

1.17.What is the performative function?  This means occasions the This means people means people speak people speak to speak to “do to “do things” “do things” or things” or perform or perform actions. perform actions. On certain actions. On certain occasions the utterance the utterance itself as or sounds constitute the uttered itself as an as an action an action is action is more is more important more important than what words important than what words or sounds constitute the uttered sentence. the uttered sentence. When asked if a third Yangtze bridge ought to be built in Wuhan, the mayor may say “OK”, which 

means more than speech, and more than an average social individual may do for the construction. The judge‟s The judge‟s imprisonment judge‟s imprisonment sentence, imprisonment sentence, the sentence, the president‟s the president‟s war or war or independence or independence declaration, independence declaration, etc., declaration, etc., are etc., are performatives as well(see J.Austin‟s speech Act Theory, Hu Zhuanglin, ecal.,pp271-278). 

1.18.What is linguistics? 

“Linguistics” is the scientific study of language. It studies not just one language of any one society, but the language of all human beings. A linguist, though, does not have to know and use a large number of languages, but to investigate how each language is constructed. He is also concerned with how with how a how a language a language varies language varies from varies from dialect from dialect to dialect to dialect, to dialect, from dialect, from class from class to class to class, to class, how class, how it how it changes it changes from changes from 

century to century, how children acquire their mother tongue, and perhaps how a person learns or should learn a foreign language. In short, linguistics studies the general principles whereupon all human languages in their human languages are languages are constructed are constructed and constructed and operate and operate as operate as systems as systems of communication systems of communication in their societies their societies or societies or communities (see Hu Zhuanglin et al.,pp20-22) 

1.19.What makes linguistics a science? 

Since linguistics study of Since linguistics is linguistics is the scientific is the scientific study of language, of language, it language, it ought it ought to ought to base to base itself base itself upon itself upon the upon the systematic, the systematic, investigation of investigation of language of language data language data which data which aims which aims at aims at discovering at discovering the discovering the true the true nature true nature of nature of language of language and language and its and its 

underlying system. To make sense of the data, a linguist usually has conceived some hypotheses about the language structure, to be checked against the observed or observable facts. In order to make his make his analysis his analysis scientific, analysis scientific, a scientific, a linguist a linguist is linguist is usually is usually guided usually guided by guided by four by four principles: four principles: exhaustiveness, 

consistency, and objectivity. Exhaustiveness means he should gather all the materials relevant to the study and give them an adequate explanation, in spite of the complicatedness. He is to leave no linguistic “stone” unturned. Consistency means there should be no contradiction between different linguistic “stone” unturned. Consistency means there should be no contradiction between different parts of the total statement. Economy means a linguist should pursue brevity in the analysis when it is possible. Objectivity implies that since some people may be subjective in the study, a linguist should be should be (or be (or sound (or sound at sound at least) at least) objective, least) objective, matter-of-face, objective, matter-of-face, faithful matter-of-face, faithful to faithful to reality, to reality, so that so that his that his work his work constitutes part of the linguistics research. 

1.20.What are the major branches of linguistics? 

The study The study of study of language of language as language as a as a whole a whole is whole is often is often called often called general called general linguistics (e.g.Hu linguistics (e.g.Hu Zhuanglin (e.g.Hu Zhuanglin et Zhuanglin et al.,1988;Wang Gang,1988).But a Gang,1988).But a linguist a linguist sometimes linguist sometimes is sometimes is able is able to able to deal to deal with deal with only with only one only one aspect one aspect of aspect of 

language at a time, thus the arise of various branches : phonetics ,phonology ,morphology, syntax, semantics, sociolinguistics, applied linguistics, pragmatics, psycholinguistics, lexicology, lexicography, etymology, etc. 

1.21.What are synchronic and diachronic studies? 

The description of a language at some point of time (as if it stopped developing) is a synchrony 

study (synchrony). The description of a language as it changes through time is a diachronic study (diachronic). An (diachronic). An essay An essay entitled essay entitled “On entitled “On the “On the Use the Use of Use of THE”, of THE”, for THE”, for example, for example, may example, may be may be synchronic, be synchronic, if synchronic, if the if the author does not recall the past of THE, and it may also be diachronic if he claims to cover a large range or period of time wherein THE has undergone tremendous alteration (see Hu Zhuanglin et al.,pp25-27). 

1.22.What is speech and what is writing? 

No one needs the repetition of the general principle of linguistic analysis, namely, the primacy of 

speech over writing. Speech is primary, because it existed long long before writing systems came into being. Genetically children learn to speak before learning to write. Secondly, written forms just represent in this way or that the speech sounds : individual sounds, as in English and French as in Japanese. 

In contrast form of In contrast to speech, spoken contrast to speech, spoken form of language, form of language, writing language, writing as writing as written as written codes, written codes, gives codes, gives language gives language new language new scope and use that speech does not have. Firstly, messages can be carried through space so that people can write to each other. Secondly, messages can be carried through time thereby, so that people of people of our of our time our time can time can be can be carried be carried through carried through time through time thereby, time thereby, so thereby, so that so that people that people of people of our of our time our time can time can read can read Beowulf, Samuel Beowulf, Samuel Johnson, Samuel Johnson, and Johnson, and Edgar and Edgar A. Poe. A. Poe. Thirdly, Poe. Thirdly, oral messages oral messages are messages are readily are readily subject to subject to distortion, either distortion, either intentional either intentional or intentional or unintentional or unintentional (causing unintentional (causing misunderstanding (causing misunderstanding or misunderstanding or malentendu), or malentendu), while malentendu), while written messages written messages allow messages allow and allow and encourage and encourage repeated encourage repeated unalterable repeated unalterable reading. Most reading. Most modern Most modern linguistic modern linguistic analysis is focused on speech, different from grammarians of the last century and theretofore. 

1.23.What are the differences between the descriptive and the prescriptive approaches?  A linguistic study linguistic study is study is “descriptive” is “descriptive” if “descriptive” if it if it only it only describes only describes and describes and analyses and analyses the analyses the facts the facts of facts of langof language, language, and uage, and “prescriptive” if “correct” language “prescriptive” if it if it tries it tries to tries to lay to lay down lay down rules down rules forrules for  for  “correct” language behavior. “correct” language behavior. Linguistic behavior. Linguistic studies Linguistic studies before this century were century were largely prescriptive because many early grammars were largely prescriptive because based on prescriptive because many because many early many early grammars were early grammars were based on “high”on “high” (literary or (literary or religious) written or religious) written records. Modern records. Modern linguistics Modern linguistics is linguistics is mostly is mostly descriptive, mostly descriptive, however. descriptive, however. It however. It (the It (the latter) (the latter) believes latter) believes that whatever believes that whatever occurs in occurs in natural in natural speech natural speech (hesitation, speech (hesitation, incomplete (hesitation, incomplete utterance, incomplete utterance, misunderstanding, utterance, misunderstanding, etc.) misunderstanding, etc.) should etc.) should be should be 

described in the analysis, and not be marked as incorrect, abnormal, corrupt, or lousy. These, with changes in vocabulary and structures, need to be explained also. 

1.24.What is the difference between langue and parole?  F. de by all F. de Saussure de Saussure refers Saussure refers “langue”to refers “langue”to the “langue”to the abstract the abstract linguistic abstract linguistic systemlinguistic system shared system shared by all the all the members the members of members of a of a 

speech community and refers “parole” to the actual or actualized language, or the realization of langue. Langue is abstract, parole specific to the speaking situation; langue not actually spoken by an individual, parole always a naturally occurring event; langue relatively stable and systematic, parole is a mass of confused facts, thus not suitable for systematic investigation. What a linguist ought to do, according to Saussure, is to abstract langue from instances of parole, i. e. to discover the regularities of linguistics. the regularities governing regularities governing all governing all instances all instances of instances of parole of parole and parole and make and make than make than the subject than the subject of linguistics. The linguistics. The langue-parole distinction is of great importance, which casts great influence on later linguists. 

1.25.What is the difference between competence and performance? 

According to N. Chomsky, “competence” is the ideal language user‟s knowledge of the rules of his language, his language, and language, and “performance” and “performance” is “performance” is the is the actual the actual realization actual realization of realization of this of this knowledge this knowledge in knowledge in utterances. in utterances. The utterances. The former enables former enables a enables a speaker a speaker to speaker to produce to produce and produce and understand and understand an understand an indefinite an indefinite number indefinite number of number of sentences of sentences and sentences and to and to recognize grammatical recognize grammatical mistakes grammatical mistakes and mistakes and ambiguities. and ambiguities. Aambiguities. A speaker‟s competence is competence is stable is stable while stable while his while his 

performance is often influenced by psychological and social factors. So a speaker‟s performance does not always match or equal his supposed competence. 

Chomsky believes rather than other Chomsky believes that believes that linguists that linguists ought linguists ought to ought to study competence, to study competence, rather than performance. In than performance. In words, they should discover what an ideal speaker knows of his native language.  Chomsky‟s competence-performance distinction is not exactly the same as , though similar to , F. de Saussure‟s langue-parole distinction. Langue is a social product, and a set of conventions for a community, while competence is competence is deemed is deemed as deemed as a as a property a property of property of the of the mind the mind of mind of each of each individual. each individual. Sussure individual. Sussure looks at or sociolinguistic looks at language at language more language more from more from a sociological from a sociological or sociolinguistic point sociolinguistic point of point of view of view than view than N. than N. Chomsky N. Chomsky since the latter deals with his issues psychologically or psycholinguistically. 

1.26.What is linguistic potential? What is actual linguistic behaviour?  These two These two terms, two terms, or terms, or the or the potential-behavior the potential-behavior distinction, potential-behavior distinction, were distinction, were made were made by made by M. by M. A. M. A. K. A. K. Halliday K. Halliday in Halliday in the in the 

1960s, from a functional point of view. There is a wide range of things a speaker can do in his culture, and similarly there are for example, people, on culture, and similarly there are many are many things many things he can say, things he can say, for example, to many for example, to many people, on many on many topics. What topics. What he What he actually he actually says actually says (i.e. says (i.e. his (i.e. his “actual his “actual linguistic “actual linguistic behavior”) linguistic behavior”) on behavior”) on a on a certain a certain occasion certain occasion to occasion to a to a certain person is what he has chosen from many possible injustice items, each of which he could have said (linguistic potential).  1.27.In what way do language, way do do language, competence do language, competence and competence and linguistic and linguistic potential linguistic potential agree? potential agree? In what agree? In what way do they do they differ? And their counterparts?  Langue, competence Langue, competence and competence and linguistic and linguistic potential linguistic potential have potential have some have some similar some similar features, similar features, but features, but they but they are they are innately are innately 

different (see 1.25). Langue is a social product, and a set of speaking conventions; competence is a property or attribute of each ideal speaker‟s mind; linguistic potential is all the linguistic corpus or repertoire available items for repertoire available from available from which from which the speaker chooses which the speaker chooses items for the items for the actual the actual utterance actual utterance situation. utterance situation. In situation. In other words, langue is invisible but reliable abstract system. Competence means “knowing”, and linguistic potential a set of possibilities for “doing” or “performing actions”. They are similar in that they all refer to the constant underlying the utterances that constitute what Saussure, Chomsky and Halliday respectively called parole, performance and actual linguistic behavior. Paole, performance and actual linguistic behavior enjoy more similarities than differences. 

1.28.What is phonetics? 

“Phonetics” is cience which studies the characteristics of human sound-making, especially “Phonetics” is the sis the sof human sound-making, those sounds those sounds used sounds used in used in speech, in speech, and speech, and provides and provides methods provides methods for methods for their for their description, their description, classification description, classification and classification and 

transcription (see Hu Zhuanglin et al., pp39-40), speech sounds may be studied in different ways, thus by three different branches of phonetics. (1)Articulatory phonetics; the branch of phonetics that examines the way in which a speech sound is produced to discover which vocal organs are involved and how they coordinate in the process. (2)Auditory phonetics, the branch of phonetic research from the hearer‟s point of view, looking into the impression which a speech sound makes on the hearer as mediated by the ear , the auditory nerve and the brain. (3)Acoustic phonetics: the study of the physical properties of speech sounds, as transmitted between mouth and ear.  Most phoneticians, however, are interested in articulatory phonetics. 

1.29.How are the vocal organs formed?  The vocal The vocal organs vocal organs (see organs (see Figure1, (see Figure1, Hu Figure1, Hu Zhuanglin Hu Zhuanglin et Zhuanglin et al.,p41), et al.,p41), or al.,p41), or speech or speech organs, speech organs, are organs, are organs are organs of organs of the of the 

human body whose secondary use is in the production of speech sounds. The vocal organs can be considered as consisting of three parts; the initiator of the air-stream, the producer of voice and the resonating cavities. 

1.30.What is place of articulation?  It refers for example, in the It refers to refers to the to the place the place in place in the in the mouth where, the mouth where, for example, the example, the obstruction the obstruction occurs, resulting obstruction occurs, resulting in the utterance of utterance of a of a consonant. a consonant. Whatever consonant. Whatever sound Whatever sound is sound is pronounced, is pronounced, at pronounced, at least at least some least some vocal some vocal organs vocal organs will organs will get will get 

involved,e. g. lips, hard palate etc., so a consonant may be one of the following (1 )bilabial p,b,m]; (2) labiodental (2) labiodental f,v]; labiodental f,v]; (3) f,v]; (3) dental (3) dental ,]; dental ,]; (4) ,]; (4) alveolar (4) alveolar t,d,l,n.s,z]; alveolar t,d,l,n.s,z]; (5) t,d,l,n.s,z]; (5) retroflex; (5) retroflex; (6) retroflex; (6) palato-alveolar (6) palato-alveolar ,]; (7) palato-alveolar ,]; (7) palatal j]; (8) velar[k,g,]; (9) uvular; (10)glottal h]. 

Some sounds involve the simultaneous use of two places of articulation. For example, the English [w]has both an approximation of the two lips and that two lips and that of the tongue and the soft palate, and may be termed “labial-velar”. 

1.31.What is the manner of articulation?  The “manner of articulation” literally means the way a sound is articulated. At a given place of articulation, the articulation, the airstream the airstream may airstream may be may be obstructed be obstructed in obstructed in various in various ways, various ways, resulting ways, resulting in resulting in various in various manners various manners of manners of 

articulation, are the following : (1) plosive p,b,t,d,k,g]; (2) nasal m,n,]; (3) trill; (4) tap or flap; (5) lateral l]; (6) fricative f,v,s,z]; (7) approximant w,j]; (8) affricate ]. 

1.32.How do phoneticians classify vowels? 

Phoneticians, in spite of the difficulty, group vowels in 5 types: (1) long and short vowels, e.g.,[i:,]; (4) rounded and unround vowels,e.g.[,i]; (5) pure and gliding vowels, e.g.[I,]. 

1.33.What is IPA? When did it come into being ? 

The IPA, abbreviation of “International Phonetic Alphabet”, is a compromise system making use of symbols of all sources, including diacritics indicating length, stress and intonation, indicating phonetic variation. Ever since it was developed in 1888, IPA has undergone a number of revisions. 

1.34.What is narrow transcription and what is broad transcription? 

In handbook In handbook of handbook of phonetics, of phonetics, Henry phonetics, Henry Sweet Henry Sweet made Sweet made a made a distinction a distinction between distinction between “narrow” between “narrow” and “narrow” and “broad” and “broad” transcriptions, which transcriptions, which he which he called he called “Narrow called “Narrow Romic”. “Narrow Romic”. The Romic”. The former The former was former was meant was meant to meant to symbolize to symbolize all symbolize all the all the possible speech possible speech sounds, speech sounds, including sounds, including even including even the even the most the most minute most minute shades minute shades of shades of pronunciation of pronunciation while pronunciation while Broad while Broad 

Romic or transcription was intended to indicate only those sounds capable of distinguishing one word from another in a given language. 

1.35.What is phonology? What is difference between phonetics and phonology?  (1)       d systems-   “Phonology” is “Phonology” is the is the study the study of sounstudy of sound systems- the systems- the invention the invention of invention of distinctive of distinctive speech distinctive speech sounds speech sounds 

that occur in a language and the patterns wherein they fall. Minimal pair, phonemes, allophones, free variation, complementary distribution, etc., are all to be investigated by a phonologist.  (2)   Phonetics, as discussed as discussed in discussed in I.28, in I.28, is I.28, is the is the branch the branch of branch of linguistics of linguistics studying linguistics studying the studying the characteristics the characteristics of characteristics of speech sounds speech sounds and sounds and provides and provides methods provides methods for methods for their for their description, their description, classification description, classification and classification and transcription. and transcription. A transcription. A phonetist is mainly interested in the physical properties of the speech sounds, speech sounds, whereas sounds, whereas a 

phonologist studies what he believes are meaningful sounds related with their semantic features, morphological features, and printed morphological features, and features, and the and the way the way they way they are conceived they are conceived and printed in printed in the in the depth the depth of depth of the of the mind the mind phonological knowledge permits a speaker to produce sounds which from meaningful utterances, to recognize a foreign “accent”, to make up new words, to add the appropriate phonetic segments to from plurals and past tenses, to know what is and what is not a sound in one‟s language. 

1.36.What is a phone? What is a phoneme? What is an allophone? 

A “phone” is a phonetic unit or segment. The speech sounds we hear and produce during linguistic communication are all phones. When we hear the following words pronounced pit], [tip], [spit], etc., the etc., the similar the similar phosimilar phones phones we nes we have we have heard have heard are heard are [p] are [p] for [p] for one for one thing, one thing, and thing, and three and three different[p]‟s, three different[p]‟s, readily different[p]‟s, readily making possible making possible the possible the “narrow the “narrow transcription “narrow transcription or transcription or diacritics”. or diacritics”. Phones diacritics”. Phones may Phones may and may and may and may not may not distinguish not distinguish meaning. A “phoneme” is a phonological unit; it is a unit that is of distinctive value. As an abstract unit, a but rather it is represented or realized unit, a phoneme a phoneme is phoneme is not is not any not any particular sound, any particular sound, it is represented or realized by realized by a certain by a certain phone in differently in phone in a in a certain a certain phonetic certain phonetic context. phonetic context. For context. For example, For example, the example, the phoneme[p] the phoneme[p] is represented phoneme[p] is represented differently in [pit], [tip] and [spit].  The phones The phones representiphones representing representing a ng a phoneme a phoneme are phoneme are called are called its called its “allophones”, its “allophones”, i. “allophones”, i. e., i. e., the e., the different the different (i.e., different (i.e., phones) (i.e., phones) but do phonetically different a new but do not do not make not make one word so make one word so phonetically different as phonetically different as to create as to create a new word new word or word or a or a new a new meaning new meaning thereof. So the different[p]‟s in the above words are the allophones of the same phoneme[p]. How a phoneme allophone is a phoneme is phoneme is represented is represented by represented by a by a phone, a phone, or which phone, or which allophone is to is to be to be used, be used, is used, is determined is determined by determined by the by the 

phonetic context in which it occurs. But the choice of an allophone is not random. In most cases it is rule-governed; these rules are to be found out by a phonologist. 

1.37.What are minimal pairs?  When two different phonetic forms are identical in every way except for one sound segment which occurs in the same place in the string , the two forms(i. e., word) are supposed to form a “minimal pair”, e.g., “pill” and “bill”, “pill” and “till”, “till” and “dill”, “till” and “kill”, etc. All these words together constitute the initial together constitute a constitute a minimal a minimal set. minimal set. They set. They are They are identical are identical in identical in form in form except for form except for the initial consonants. initial consonants. 

There are many minimal pairs in English, which makes it relatively easy to know what are English phonemes. It is of great importance to find the minimal pairs when a phonologist is dealing with the sound system of an unknown language(see Hu Zhuanglin et al., pp65-66). 

1.38.What is free variation? 

If two sounds occurring in the same environment do not contrast; namely, if the substitution of one for the other does not generate a new word form but merely a different pronunciation of the same word, the two sounds then are said to be in “free variation”. The plosives, for example, may not be exploded when they occur before another plosive or a nasal (e. g., act, apt, good morning). The minute distinctions may, if necessary, be transcribed in diacritics. These unexploded and exploded plosives are in free variation. Sounds in free variation should be assigned to the same phoneme. 

1.39.What is complementary distribution? 

When two sounds never occur in the same environment, they are in “complementary distribution”. For example, For example, the example, the aspirated the aspirated English aspirated English plosives English plosives never plosives never occur never occur after, occur after, and after, and the and the unsaturated the unsaturated ones unsaturated ones never ones never 

occur initially. Sounds in complementary distribution may be assigned to the same phoneme. The allophones of[l], allophones of[l], for of[l], for example, for example, are example, are also are also in also in complementary in complementary distribution. complementary distribution. The distribution. The clear[l] The clear[l] occurs clear[l] occurs only occurs only 

before a vowel, the voiceless equivalent of[l] occurs only after a voiceless consonant, such as in the words “please”, “butler”, “clear”, etc., and the dark[l] occurs only after a vowel or as a syllabic sound after a consonant, such as in the words “feel”, “help”, “middle”, etc. 

1.40.What is the assimilation rule? What is the deletion rule?  (1) The (1) The “assimilation The “assimilation rule” assimilates rule” assimilates one assimilates one segment one segment to segment to another to another by another by “copying” by “copying” a “copying” a feature a feature of feature of a of a sequential phoneme, thus making the two phones more similar. This rule accounts for the raring pronunciation of the nasal[n] that occurs within a word. The rule is that within a word the nasal consonant[n] assumes the same place negative consonant[n] assumes the same place of place of articulation of articulation as articulation as the as the following the following consonant. The following consonant. The prefix “in-“ serves as a good example. It may be pronounced as [in], or [im] when occurring in different phonetic contexts: e. g., indiscrete-[    ](alveolar) 

inconceivable-[    ](velar)  input-[„imput](bilabial) input-[„imput](bilabial) 

The “deletion rule” tells us when a sound is to be deleted although is orthographically represented. While the While the lthe letter “g” etter “g” is “g” is mute is mute in mute in “sign”, in “sign”, “design” “sign”, “design” and “design” and “paradigm”, and “paradigm”, it “paradigm”, it is it is pronounced is pronounced in pronounced in their in their corresponding derivatives: be corresponding derivatives: “signature”, derivatives: “signature”, “designation” “signature”, “designation” and “designation” and “paradigmatic”. and “paradigmatic”. The “paradigmatic”. The rule The rule then can rule then can 

stated as: delete a [g] when it occurs before a final nasal consonant. This accounts for some of the seeming irregularities of the English spelling (see Dai Weidong ,pp22-23). 1.41.What is suprasegmental phonology? What are suprasegmental features?  “Suprasegmental phonology” “Suprasegmental phonology” refers phonology” refers to refers to the to the study the study of study of phonological of phonological properties phonological properties of properties of linguisticof linguistic units larger than the segment called phoneme, such as syllable, word and sentence. 

Hu Zhuanglin et al.,(p,73) includes stress, length and pitch as what they suppose to be “principal suprasegmental  features”, features”, calling the concurrent patterning of three “intonation”. Dai Weidong(pp23-25) lists three also, but they are stress, tone and intonation. 

1.42.What is morphology? 

“Morphology” is the branch of grammar that studies the internal structure of words, and the rules by which words are formed. It is generally divided into two fields: inflectional morphology and inflectional morphology and lexical/derivational morphology. 

1.43.What is inflection/inflexion? 

“Inflection” is the manifestation of grammatical relationships through the addition of inflectional affixes, such affixes, such as number, person, finiteness, person, finiteness, aspect, and case, and case, which case, which does not change not change the grammatical class of the items to which they are attached. 

1.44.What is a morpheme? What is an allomorph? 

The “morpheme” is the smallest unit in terms of relationship between expression and content, a 

unit which cannot be divided without destroying or drastically altering the meaning, whether it is lexical or “boxes”, for lexical or grammatical. or grammatical. The word grammatical. The word “boxes”, for example, for example, has example, has two has two morphemes: two morphemes: “box” morphemes: “box” and “box” and “and “-es”, neither of neither of which of which permits which permits further permits further division further division or division or analysis or analysis ianalysis if we f we don‟t we don‟t wish to wish to sacrifice to sacrifice meaning. sacrifice meaning. Therefore a morpheme is considered the minimal unit of meaning.  Allomorphs, like allophones vs. phones, are the alternate shapes (and thus phonetic forms) of the same morphemes. same morphemes. Some morphemes. Some morphemes, Some morphemes, though, morphemes, though, have though, have no have no more no more than more than one than one invariable one invariable form invariable form in form in all in all contexts, such as “dog”, “cat”, etc. The variants of the plurality “-s” make the allomorphs thereof in the following examples: map-maps, mouse-mice, sheep-sheep etc. 

1.45.What is a free morpheme? What is a bound morpheme? 

A “free morpheme” is a morpheme that constitutes a word by itself, such as „bed”, “tree” ,etc. A “bound morpheme” is one that appears with at least another morpheme, such as “-s” in “beds” , “-al” in “national” and so on. All monomorphemic words are free morphemes. morphemes. Those polymorphemic words (combination of morphemes )or polymorphemic words are words are either compounds are either compounds (combination of two of two or two or more free or more free derivatives (word derived from free morphemes). 

1.46.What is a root ? What is a stem? What is an affix?  A “root” is the base form of a word that cannot be further analyzed without total loss of identity. In other words, a “root” is that part of the word left when all the affixes are removed. “Internationalism” is a four-morpheme derivative which keeps its free morpheme “nation” as its root when “ inter-”, “-al” and “-ism” are taken away. 

A “stem” is any morpheme or combination of morphemes to which an affix can be added. It may be the same as , and in other cases, different from, a root. For example, in the word “friends” , “friend” is stem, but “friendships”, “friendships” “friend” is both is both the both the root the root and the root and the stem, but in but in the word in the word “friendships”, “friendships” is “friendships” is its stem, is its stem, “friend” is its root. Some words (i. e., compounds ) have more than one root ,e. g., “mailman” , “girlfriend” ,ect. 

An “affix” is the collective term for the type of formative that can be used, only when added to another morpheme(the another morpheme(the root morpheme(the root or root or stem). or stem). Affixes stem). Affixes are limited are limited in number in number in number in a in a language, a language, and language, and are and are generally classified into three subtypes: prefix, suffix and infix, e. g. , “mini-”, “un-”, ect.(prefix); “-ise”, “-tion”, ect.(suffix).

1.47.What are open classes? What are closed classes? 

In English, nouns, verbs, adjectives, and adverbs make up the largest part of the vocabulary. They are “open -class words”, since we can regularly add new lexical entries to these classes. The other syntactic categories are, for the most part, closed classes, or closed-class words. The number of them is hardly alterable, if they are changeable at all. 

1.48.What is 1.48.What is lexicon? is lexicon? What lexicon? What is What is word? is word? What word? What is What is lexeme? is lexeme? What lexeme? What is What is vocabulary? is vocabulary? Lexicon? vocabulary? Lexicon? Word? Lexicon? Word? Lexeme? Vocabulary?  “Lexicon”, in “Lexicon”, in its in its most its most general most general sense, general sense, is sense, is synonymous is synonymous with synonymous with vocabulary. with vocabulary. In vocabulary. In its In its technical its technical sense, technical sense, 

however, lexicon deals with the analysis and creation of words, idioms and collocations. “Word” is a unit of expression which has universal intuitive recognition by native-speakers, whether it is expressed in spoken or written form. This definition is perhaps a little vague as there are different criteria with regard to its identification and definition. It seems that it is hard , even impossible, to define “word” three senses define “word” linguistically. “word” linguistically. Nonetheless linguistically. Nonetheless it Nonetheless it is it is universally is universally agreed universally agreed that the following agreed that the following three senses three are involved in the definition of “word”, none of which, though, is expected to cope with all the situations: (1)a physically definable unit ,e. g.,[it iz „w  honological), “It is wonder” „w   ](p   ](p(orthographic); (2) the common factor underlying a set of forms (see what is the common factor of “checks”, “checked”, “checking ”, etc.); (3) a grammatical unit(look at (1) again; every word plays a grammatical part in the sentence).  According to According to Leonard to Leonard Bloomfield, Leonard Bloomfield, a Bloomfield, a word a word is word is a is a minimum a minimum free minimum free form free form (compare: form (compare: a (compare: a sentence a sentence is sentence is a is a 

maximum free form, according to Bloomfield ). There are other factors that may help us identify words: (1) stability (no great change of orthographic features); (2)relative uninterruptibility (we words: (1) stability (no great change of orthographic features); (2)relative uninterruptibility (we uninterruptibility can hardly can hardly insert hardly insert anything insert anything between anything between two between two parts two parts of parts of a of a word a word or word or between or between the between the letters). the letters). Tletters). To make o make the make the category clearer we can subclassify words into a few types: (1) variable and invariable words(e. g.,-mats, seldom-?); (2) grammatical and lexical words(e. g. to, in ,etc., and table, chair, ect. By “lexical words” we mean the words that carry content, e.g., “lexical words” we mean the words that carry a semantic carry a semantic content, e.g., nouns, e.g., nouns, verbs, nouns, verbs, adjectives verbs, adjectives and many adverbs; (3) closed-class and open-class words(see I.47).  In order to reduce the ambiguity of the term “word” ,the term “lexeme” is postulated as the abtract unit which refers which refers to the smallest the smallest unit in the meaning system of a language that can that can be distinguished from distinguished from other from other smaller other smaller units. smaller units. Aunits. A lexeme can lexeme can occur can occur in occur in many in many different many different forms different forms in forms in actual in actual spoken or spoken or written or written texts. written texts. For texts. For example, For example, “write” example, “write” is “write” is the is the lexeme the lexeme of lexeme of the of the following the following words: following words: “write”, words: “write”, “write”, “wrote”, “writing”, and “written.”  “Vocabulary” usually ocabulary” usually refers usually refers to refers to all to all words all words or words or lexical or lexical items lexical items a items a person a person has person has acquired has acquired about acquired about technical about technical or/and untechnical things. So we encourage our students to enlarge their vocabulary. “vocabulary” things. So we encourage our students to enlarge their vocabulary. “vocabulary” is also used to mean word list or glossary. 

1.49.What is collocation? 

“Collocation” is a term used in lexicology by some linguists to refer to the habitual co-occurrences of individual lexical items. For example, we can “read” a “book”; “correct” can narrowly occur individual lexical items. For example, we can “read” a “book”; “correct” can narrowly occur with “book” which is supposed to have faults, “read” a with “book” which is supposed to have faults, but faults, but no but no one can no one can “read” a “mistake” a “mistake” because with “mistake” because with regard to co-occurrence these two words are not collocates. 

1.50.What is syntax? 

“Syntax” is the study of the rules governing the ways in which words, word groups and phrases are combined are combined to combined to form to form sentences form sentences in sentences in a in a language, a language, or language, or the or the study the study of study of the of the interrelationships the interrelationships between interrelationships between 

sentential elements. 

1.51.What is a sentence?  L. BloL. Bloomfield Bloomfield defines omfield defines “sentence” defines “sentence” as “sentence” as an as an independent an independent linguistic independent linguistic form linguistic form not form not included not included by included by some by some 

grammatical marks in any other linguistic from, i. e., it is not subordinated to a larger linguistic form, it is a structurally independent linguistic form. It is also called a maximum free form. 

1.52.What are syntactic relations? 

“Syntactic relations” refer to the ways in which words, word groups or phrases form sentences; hence three hence three kinds three kinds of kinds of syntactic of syntactic relations: syntactic relations: positional relations: positional relations, positional relations, relations relations, relations of relations of substitutability of substitutability and substitutability and relations of co-occurrence. 

“Positional relation”, or “word order”, refers to the sequential arrangement to words in a language. It is a manifestation of a certain aspect of what F. de Saussure called “syntagmatic relations”, or of what other linguists call “horizontal relations” or “chain relations”.  Relations of Relations of substitutability” of substitutability” refer substitutability” refer to refer to classes to classes or classes or sets or sets of sets of words of words substitutable words substitutable for each for each other each other grammatically in them “associative grammatically in same in same sentence same sentence structures. sentence structures. Saussure called structures. Saussure called them “associative relations”. “associative relations”. Other relations”. Other people call them “paradigmatic/vertical/choice relations”.  By “relations of co-occurrence”, one means that words of different sets of clauses may permit or require the occurrence of a word of another set or class to form a sentence or a particular part of a sentence. Thus sentence. Thus relations Thus relations of relations of co-occurrence of co-occurrence partly co-occurrence partly belong partly belong to belong to syntagmatic to syntagmatic relations syntagmatic relations and relations and partly and partly to partly to paradigmatic relations. 

1.53.What is IC analysis? What are immediate constituents(and ultimate constituents)? 

“IC analysis” is a new approach of sentence study that cuts a sentence into two(or more) segments. 

This kind of pure segmentation is simply dividing a sentence into its constituent elements without even knowing what knowing what they really are . are . What remain of the first cut first cut are called are called “immediate constituents”, and “ultimate constituents”. constituents”, and what and what are what are left are left at left at the at the final the final cut final cut are called cut are called “ultimate constituents”. For constituents”. For example, For example, “John left be thus segmented: “John| left “John left yesterday” can left yesterday” can be thus segmented: “John| left | left | | | | yesterday”. | yesterday”. Wyesterday”. We get e get two get two immediate two immediate constituents for and they this constituents for the for the first cut (|), the first cut (|), and they are they are “John” are “John” and “John” and “left and “left yesterday”. “left yesterday”. Further split(||) yesterday”. Further split(||) sentence generates three “ultimate constituents”: “John”, “left ” and “yesterday”. 

1..What are endocentric and exocentric constructons?  “Endocentric construction” is one whose distribution is functionally equivalent to that of one or more of its constituents, i. e., a word or a group of words, which serves as a definable “centre” or “head”. Usually “head”. Usually noun Usually noun phrases, noun phrases, verb phrases, verb phrases verb phrases and phrases and adjective and adjective phrases adjective phrases belong phrases belong to belong to endocentric to endocentric types endocentric types 

because the constituent items are subordinate to the head. “Exocentric construction”, opposite of endocentric construction, refers to a group of syntactically related words where none of the words is functionally equivalent to the group as whole ;that is to say ,there is no definable centre or head inside the usually includes inside the group. the group. Exocentric construction group. Exocentric construction usually includes basic includes basic sentence, basic sentence, prepositional sentence, prepositional phrase, prepositional phrase, predicate(verb+object) construction, and connective(be+complement) construction. 

1.55.What is a subject? A predicate? An object? 

In some language, an “subject” refers to one of the nouns in the nominative case, such as “pater” 

in the following example: “pater filium amat” (put literally in English: the father the son loves). In 

English, a establish correspondence with the English, a “grammatical a “grammatical subject” “grammatical subject” refers subject” refers to refers to a to a noun which can a noun which can establish correspondence with establish verb and which can be checked by a tag-question test, e.g., “He is a good cook(, isn‟t he?).” 

A “predicate” refers to a major constituent of sentence structure in a binary analysis in which all obligatory constituents are considered together. e.g., “The obligatory constituents other constituents other than the subject other than the subject are considered together. e.g., in the.g., in the sentence monkey is jumping ”, “is jumping ” is the predicate.  Traditionally “object” refers to the receiver or goal of an action, and it is further classified into two kinds: direct object and indirect object. In some inflecting languages, an object is marked by case labels: the direct object, direct object, labels: the “accusative the “accusative case” for “accusative case” for direct object, and object, and the and the “dative the “dative case “dative case ” for case ” for direct object, and object, and the and the “dative case” “dative case” for case” for indirect for indirect to indirect to word to word order(after word order(after the order(after the verb the verb and verb and preposition) and preposition) and preposition) and by and by inflections(of by inflections(of pronouns). E .g., in the sentence “John kissed me”, “me” is the object. Modern linguists suggest that an object refers to such an item that it can become a subject in passive transformation. 

1.56.What is category? 

The term “category” in some approaches refers to classes and functions in its narrow sense, e.g., noun, verb, it refers noun, verb, subject, verb, subject, predicate, subject, predicate, noun predicate, noun phrase, noun phrase, verb phrase, verb phrase, verb phrase, etc. phrase, etc. More specifically etc. More specifically it refers to refers to the to the 

defining properties of these general units: the categories of the noun, for example, include number, gender, case and countability ;and of the verb, for example, tense, aspect, voice, etc. 

1.57.What is number? What is gender? What is case?  “Number” is “Number” is a is a grammatical a grammatical category used category used for used for the for the analysis the analysis of analysis of word of word classes word classes displaying classes displaying such contrasts as singular, dual, plural, etc. In English, number is mainly observed in nouns, and there are only and plural. are only two only two forms: singular two forms: singular and plural. Number plural. Number is Number is also is also reflected also reflected in reflected in the in the inflections the inflections of inflections of pronouns of pronouns and verbs. 

“Gender” displays such contrasts such contrasts as “masculine”, “feminine”, “neuter”, or “animate” and “inanimate”, etc., “inanimate”, etc., for etc., for tfor the analysis he analysis of analysis of word of word classes. word classes. When classes. When word When word items word items refer items refer to refer to the to the sex the sex of sex of the of the real-world entities, we natural gender(the opposite is grammatical gender). 

“Case” identifies the syntactic relationship between words in a sentence. In Latin grammar, cases are based are based on based on variations on variations in variations in the in the morphological the morphological forms morphological forms of forms of the of the word, the word, and word, and are and are given are given the given the terms the terms “accusative”, “nominative”, “dative”,etc. In English, the case category is realized in three ways: by following a preposition and by word order. 

1.58.What is concord? What is government? 

“Concord ” may be defined as requirement that the forms of two or more words of specific word classes that stand in specific syntactic relationship with one another shall be characterized by the same paradigmatically marked category or categories, e.g., “man runs”, “men run”. “Government” requires that one word of a particular class in a given syntactic class shall exhibit the form of a specific category. In English, government applies only to pronouns among the variable words ,that is , prepositions and verbs govern particular forms of the paradigms of pronouns according to their syntactic relation with them, e.g. ,  “I helped him; he helped me.” 

1.59.What is a phrase? What is a clause?  A “phrase” is “phrase” is a is a single a single element single element of element of structure of structure containing structure containing morcontaining more more than e than one than one word, one word, and word, and lacking and lacking the lacking the subject-predicate subject-predicate structure predicate structure typical structure typical of typical of “clauses”. of “clauses”. Traditionally, “clauses”. Traditionally, it is it is seen is seen as seen as part as part of part of a of a structural a structural 

hierachy, falling between a clause and word, e.g., “the three tallest girls” (nominal phrase). There 

is now a tendency to make a distinction between word groups and phrases. A “word group” is an 

extension of a word of a particular class by way of modification with its main features of the class unchanged. Thus we have nominal group, verbal group, adverbial group, conjunction group and preposition group. 

A “clause” is group of words with its own subject and predicate included in a larger subject-verb construction, namely, construction, namely, in namely, in a in a sentence. a sentence. Clauses sentence. Clauses can Clauses can also can also be also be classified be classified into classified into two into two kinds: two kinds: finite kinds: finite and finite and non-finite clauses, the latter referring to what are traditionally called infinitive phrase, participle phrase and gerundial phrase. (For “sentence”, see I.51.) 

1.60.What is conjoining? What is embedding? What is recursiveness?  “Conjoining” refers to a construction where one clause is co-ordinated or conjoined with another, e. g., e. g., “John g., “John bought “John bought a bought a cat a cat and cat and his and his wife his wife killed wife killed her.” killed her.” “Embedding” refers “Embedding” refers to refers to the to the process the process of process of construction where one clause is included in the sentence (or main clause) in syntactic subordination, e.g., “I saw the man who had killed a chimpanzee.” By “recursiveness” we mean that there is theoretically no limit to the number of the embedded clauses in a complex sentence. This is true also with nominal and adverbial clauses, e.g., “I saw the man who killed a cat who…a rat which…that…” ch…that…” 

1.61.What is hypotactic relation? What is paratactic relation?  “Hypotactic relation” refers to a construction a construction where construction where constituents where constituents are linked by means of conjunction, e.g. “He bought eggs and milk.” “Paratactic relation” refers to constructions which are connected by juxtaposition, punctuation or intonation, e. g., “He bought tea, coffee, eggs and milk” (pay attention to the first three nouns connected without “and”). 

1.62.What is semantics? 

“Semantics” refers to the study of the communication of meaning through language. Or simply, it is the study of meaning. 

1.63.What is meaning? 

Though it is difficult to define, “meaning” has the following meaning: (1) an intrinsic property; (2) the connotation of a word; (3) the words put after of a word; (3) the words put after a after a dictionary a dictionary entry; dictionary entry; (4) entry; (4) the (4) the position the position an position an object an object 

occupies in  a system; (5) what the symbol user actually refers to; (6) what the symbol user should refer to; (7) what the symbol user believes he is referring to; (8) what the symbol interpreter refers to; (9) what the symbol interpreter believes it refers to; (10) what the symbol interpreter believes the user refers to… linguists argued about “meaning of meaning” fiercely in the result of “realism”, “conceptualism/mentalism”, “mechanism”, “contextualism”, “behaviorism”, “functionalism”, etc. (see Hu (see Hu Zhuanglin Hu Zhuanglin et Zhuanglin et al., et al., pp140-al., pp140-142). pp140-142). Mention 142). Mention ought Mention ought to ought to be to be made be made of made of the of the “Semantic the “Semantic Triangle “Semantic Triangle 

Theory” of Ogden & Richards. We use a word and the listener knows what it refers to because, according to the theory, they have acquired the same concept/reference of the word used and of the object/referent. 

1..What is       between meaning, concept, 1..What is the is the difference  the difference     between meaning, concept, connotation, concept, connotation, sense, connotation, sense, implication, sense, implication, denotation, notation, reference, implicature and signification?  “Meaning” refers “Concept” or “Meaning” refers to refers to the to the association the association of association of language of language symbols language symbols with symbols with the with the real the real word. (2) real word. (2) “Concept” or 

“notion” is the impression of objects in people‟s mind. people‟s mind. (3) “connotation” is the implied meaning ,similar to “implication” and “implicature”. (4) “Sense” is the lexical position in which a word finds itself. (5) “Denotation”, like “sense”, is not directly related with objects, but makes the word finds itself. (5) “Denotation”, like “sense”, is not directly related with objects, but makes the abstract assumption abstract assumption of assumption of the of the real the real world. real world. (6) world. (6) “Reference” (6) “Reference” is “Reference” is the is the wordthe word-object word-object relationship. -object relationship. (7) “Implicature”, in its narrow sense, refers to conversational implicature achieved by intentionally implicature achieved by intentionally violating one of the four CP maxims (see I.122-123). (8) “Signification”, in contrast with “value”, mean the meaning of situation may not have any communicative value, like “What‟s this?”  1.65.What is the Semantic/Semiotic Triangle?  Ogden and “Semantic Triangle” Ogden and Richards and Richards presented Richards presented the classic presented the classic “Semantic Triangle” as Triangle” as manifested as manifested in manifested in the in the following the following diagram, in which the “symbol” or “form” refers to the linguistic elements (word, sentence, etc.), the “referent” refers to the object in the world of experience, and “thought” or “reference” refers to concept to concept or concept or notion. or notion. Thus, notion. Thus, the Thus, the symbol the symbol a symbol a word a word signifies word signifies “things” signifies “things” by “things” by virtue by virtue of virtue of the of the “concept”, the “concept”, associated with the form of the word in the mind of the speaker of the language. The “concept” thus considered is meaning of the word.  1.66.What is contextualism?  “Contextualism” is based on the presumption that one can derive meaning from, or reduce it to, observable context: the “situational context” and the “linguistic context”. Every utterance occurs in a in a particular a particular spatio-temporal particular spatio-temporal situation, spatio-temporal situation, as situation, as the as the following the following factors following factors are factors are related are related to related to the to the situational the situational context: (1) the speaker and the hearer; (2) the actions they are performing at the time; (3) various external objects and events; (4) deictic features.  The “linguistic It considers the probability The “linguistic context” “linguistic context” is context” is another is another aspect another aspect of contextualism. aspect of contextualism. the probability of probability of one of one word‟s co-occurrence co-occurrence or -occurrence or collocation or collocation with collocation with another, with another, which another, which forms which forms part forms part of part of the of the meaning, the meaning, and meaning, and an and an important factor in communication.  1.67.How many kinds of meaning did linguists find and study?  C.C.Fries(1952) makes a traditional distinction between lexical meaning and structural meaning. The former is expressed by those “meaningful” parts of speech, such as nouns, verbs, adjectives, and adverbs, and adverbs, and adverbs, and is and is given is given in given in the in the dictionary the dictionary associated dictionary associated with associated with grammar. with grammar. The grammar. The latter The latter expresses latter expresses the expresses the distinction between the subject and the object of a sentence, oppositions of definiteness, tense the number, and number, and the and the difference the difference between difference between statements, between statements, questions statements, questions and questions and requests. and requests. In requests. In a In a word, a word, “the word, “the total “the total linguistic meaning of any utterance consists of the lexical meaning of the separate words plus such structural meaning…”  G. Leech(1981) categorizes Leech(1981) categorizes seven categorizes seven kinds of meaning, five of which of which are brought under the “associative meaning” (see the following chart).  Different from the traditional and Different from the traditional and the and the functional the functional approach, functional approach, Fapproach, F.R.Palmer(1981) and .R.Palmer(1981) and J.Lyons(1977) and J.Lyons(1977) suggest we draw a distinction between sentence meaning and utterance meaning, the former being directly predictable while the directly predictable from predictable from the from the grammatical the grammatical and grammatical and lexical and lexical features lexical features of features of the sentence, of the sentence, while the latter the latter includes all the various types of meaning not necessarily associated thereto.  1.68.What is synonymy?  “Synonymy” is “Synonymy” is used is used to used to mean to mean sameness mean sameness or sameness or close or close similarity close similarity of meaning. of meaning. Dictionary meaning. Dictionary makers Dictionary makers (lexicographers) rely (lexicographers) rely on rely on the on the existence the existence of existence of synonymy of synonymy for synonymy for their for their definitions. their definitions. Some definitions. Some semanticians Some semanticians 

maintain, however, that there are no real synonyms, because two or more words named synonyms are expected without exception to differ from one another in one of the following aspects:  (1)   In shades of meaning (e.g., finish, complete, close, conclude, terminate, finalize, end, etc.);  (2)   In stylistic meaning(see 1.67);  (3)   In emotive meaning(or affective meaning, see 1.67);  (4)   In range of use (or collocative meaning, see 1.67);  (5)   In British and American English usages [e.g., autumn (BrE), fall (AmE)].  Simeon Potter the occasion. Simeon Potter said,“ Potter said,“ Language said,“ Language is Language is like is like dress. like dress. Wdress. We vary e vary our vary our dress our dress to suit dress to suit the occasion. Woccasion. We do e do not do not appear at a friend‟s silver-wedding anniversary in gardening clothes, nor do we go punting on the river in a dinner-jacket.” This means the learning lf synonyms is important to anyone that wishes to use his language freely and well. 

1.69.What is Antonymy? How many kinds of antonyms are there?  The term “antonymy” is used for oppositions of meaning; words that stand opposite in meaning are called are called “antonyms”, called “antonyms”, or “antonyms”, or opposites, or opposites, which opposites, which fall which fall in fall in there in there categories there categories 1)gradable categories 1)gradable antonyms(e.g, good-bad); (2)complementary antonyms(e.g., single-mar-ried); (3)relational antonyms(e.g., buy-sell). 

1.70.What is hyponymy? What is a hyponym? What is superordinate? 

“Hyponymy” involves us in the notion of meaning inclusion. It is a matter of class membership. “Hyponymy” involves us in the notion of meaning inclusion. It is a matter of class membership. That is to say, when X id a kind of Y, the lower term X is the “hyponym”, and the upper term Y is the “superordinate”. wo or the “superordinate”. T“superordinate”. To or more or more hyponyms more hyponyms sharing hyponyms sharing the sharing the same the same one same one superordinate one superordinate are superordinate are called are called “co-“co-hyponyms”. For example, “flower” is the superordinate of “tulip”, “violet” and “rose”, which are the co-hyponyms of “flower”. 

1.71.What is polysemy? What is homonymy?  “Polysemy” refershave than “Polysemy” refers to the to the semantic the semantic phenomenon semantic phenomenon that phenomenon that a word may that a word may have than one than one meaning. one meaning. For meaning. For 

example, “negative”, means(1)a statement saying or meaning “no”, (2)a refusal or denial, (3)one of the of the following the following words following words and words and expressions: and expressions: no, expressions: no, not, no, not, nothing, not, nothing, never, nothing, never, not never, not at not at all, at all, etc. all, etc. ,(4) etc. ,(4) a ,(4) a negative a negative photograph or film. But we can sometimes hardly meanings or photograph or film. But we can sometimes hardly tell hardly tell if tell if a if a form a form has several form has several meanings or it or it is it is a is a different word taking this form; hence the difference between polysemy and homonymy. 

1.72.What is entailment?  “Entailment” can “Entailment” can be can be illustrated be illustrated by illustrated by the by the following the following two following two sentences, two sentences, with sentences, with Sentence with Sentence ASentence A entailing Sentence B: 

A: He married a blonde heiress.  B: He married a blonde. 

In terms of truth value, the following relationships exist between these two sentences 1) When A is true, B is necessarily true;(2) When B is false, too;(3) when A is false, B may be true or false ;(4) When B When B is B is true, is true, Atrue, A may be may be true be true or true or false. or false. Entailment false. Entailment is Entailment is basically is basically a basically a semantic a semantic relation semantic relation or relation or logical or logical implication, but we have to assume co-reference of “He” in sentence A and sentence B, before we have A entail B. 您所 查 看 的 帖 子    oy 来 源 于   k    a a     n .c o m     考研 论坛 考研 论坛