为规范各专业毕业论文(设计)管理,现对毕业论文格式提出基本要求如下,请各系部参照本要求执行。
1. 2.
毕业论文(设计)的封面,要求全院统一样式(见附表1)。 毕业论文(设计)评审表,必须要有,但不做统一要求。现给
出推荐样式(见附表2),供参考。 3.
毕业论文(设计)的正文部分,不做统一要求,各系部根据
文理科专业的不同各自统一要求.但要尽可能规范、美观、大方。
4. 纸张与装订要求
纸张为A4纸,页边距上2。5cm,下2.5cm,左3。0cm,右2.5cm;左装订线0.5cm
装订顺序: 惠州经济学院毕业论文(设计)评审表→论文封面→正文
论文装订方式统一规定为左装订。
教 务 处 2007—6—8
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惠州经济职业技术学院
毕 业 论 文
课题名称
学生姓名 学 号 专 业 班 级 指导教师
二00七年六月
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附表2 惠州经济职业技术学院
毕业论文(设计)评审表
学生姓名 所学专业 毕业论文(设计)题目 指导教师签字: 年 月 日
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学号 所在系部 所在班级 指导教师审查意见 评 阅 教 师 评 阅 意 见 评阅教师签字: 年 月 日 文化教育大类毕业设计与论文的写作特点
高职高专文化教育大类专业毕业论文在特点上,有和其他专业的毕业论文相同的共性,如前面章节中提到的理论性、创造性、指导性、专业性、层次性、规范性等,又有自己的特点。
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1 针对性
一般高等院校的文化教育大类专业的学习领域较为广泛,其毕业论文可分“文学”、“语言\"、“翻译\"、“文化”和“教学法\"等5个专题,而高职高专学生的学习除精读、泛读、语法、翻译、口语、听力等必修的专业基础课程外,其余基本就是根据各院校的职业设计而确立的课程了,所以,毕业论文也应针对所学习过的课程,而不要涉及未接触过的专题,如“文学”等.这样学生写作时才便于搜集材料,有的放矢,避免一味大谈或抄袭自己都不懂的深奥领域。
2 实践性
高职高专院校学生在学习理论知识过程中,其实践课程的学习也是一个重要环节。因此,学生的毕业论文也应体现出这一特点。文化教育大类专业的毕业论文就要将专业方向基础理论课程的学习与其实践课程结合起来进行研究活动,分析专业知识学习对其具体实践活动的作用、意义,把知识转化为能力的实际训练。
3 应用性
高职高专院校的某些课程具有明显的实际应用性,如英语专业的旅游方向、酒店管理方向、外贸方向等等,因此,其毕业论文的撰写应把语言文化的学习与其在具体某一领域的应用结合起来,这样才能显示出高职高专毕业论文区别于普通高等院校毕业论文的特色,突出高职高专院校的应用型人才培养特点。
4 习作性
毕业论文的写作是对所学专业基础知识的运用和深化.高职高专学生的毕业论文写作目的主要是为了培养学生具有综合运用所学知识解决实际问题的能力。文化教育大类专业的学生毕业论文可以分两类,一类是实践论文,即谈论语言文化学习在社会中的实际应用,另一类是浅显层次上的学术论文,即对语言文化的新的见解与体会.但不论是哪一类,都离不开其习作性特点,因为毕业生的论文写作毕竟还是处于为将来作为专业人员写实践或学术论文做好准备的阶段,其语言文化层面的分析、实践中的具体应用都还达不到一定的深度。
5 双语性
一般普通高等院校文化教育大类外语专业毕业论文写作要求用所学专业外语,而高职高专外语专业毕业论文可以根据学校的具体要求,并不强求一定用外语来写,也可以用中文,但论文中必须反映出是外语专业的论文,也就是说,应该在论文中适当穿插外文,用双语来进行阐释说明。
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文化教育大类毕业设计与论文写作的基本要领
1 选题
前面第二章已讲述了选题的意义、原则、方法以及最佳选题的获取,这里我们主要谈谈文化教育大类专业论文在选题方面应注意的事情.我们以英语专业为
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例。
一般而言,毕业论文分为纯理论性的探讨研究和分析研究某个专业方向的实际问题,高职高专学生毕业论文以分析研究某个实际的专业问题为宜。英语专业和其他专业相比,毕业论文涉及的范围较广,包括英语语言、英汉互译、英美文化与专业方向相关的选题.其中英语语言又包括语法、语音、词汇等基础学习以及听力、口语、视听等技能的掌握等领域;此外,语言中又反映出西方英语国家的文化,如他们的思维习惯、行为习惯、习语用法习惯等等;翻译包括笔译和口译,而与专业方向相关的选题更是根据各院校设定的职业方向各异而不同。
选择论题和确定论文题目,应以“小题大做\"为原则,其要领是:先从上述范围内选择一个方向,然后逐渐缩小范围,如下所示:
论题方向:英语语言
具体论题:汉英语言中反映出的中西文化差异 初定题目:从汉英习语看中西文化差异
定稿题目:中西文化差异在动物习语中的反映
选择论题与确定题目,必须弄明白论述方向、论题、题目之间的关系。论述方向是一个范围较大又较泛的领域;论题指论文要论证的命题;而论文题目只是论题的概括。如:英汉翻译技巧是一个论述方向,而论证翻译技巧的性质、用途就可成为一个论题。以此为论题,若拟出“论英汉翻译技巧”、“常用英汉翻译技巧\"、“英诗中译的技巧”之类的题目,显然偏大。一篇毕业论文只有一个中心论点。另外,每个领域都有各自的具体内容和特点。因此,在考虑具体论题之前,先要了解特定领域的一般性知识,然后逐渐将自己的注意力集中于某个论题.但是,无论涉及哪个领域,在确定论文题目时都必须考虑以下几个因素:
1.立论要明确,缺乏鲜明论点则缺乏中心。中心不突出的论文必然缺乏条理性,难以写出合格的毕业论文来。
2.选题应当考虑写作意义,立论应当力求新意,论文必须有健康的论点。如果作者对自己的选题没有任何自己的观点,又不能以自己的眼光、方法去论证别人论证过的观点,也应当重新考虑.
3.题目切忌过于复杂,如“中西文化差异之比较”、“英语在当今社会中的重要地位”“试谈英汉口译技巧\"等等。但是,论题也不能过于简单,过于简单浅显的题目,缺乏学术水平,没有论述价值,难以成文,如“英语口语学习的重要性\"之类的题目,就显得没有写作与阅读价值。
4.时间与篇幅。普通高校的毕业论文篇幅一般在5000字左右,甚至更长,高职高专学生毕业论文要求在3000-5000为宜.无论长短,必须考虑能否在规定时间内顺利完成,能否在有限的篇幅内阐述清楚问题,令人信服地论证你的观点。
5.选题必须依据充分的资料和自身的实际能力。如果作者对论文题目涉及的论题不够熟悉,或缺乏足够的资料,或选题过于深奥、复杂,均应当尽早放弃,另选题目.意大利在世界上知名度最高的当代作家之一,被誉为二十世纪但丁的翁贝托·埃科(Umberto Ecoo 1932— )在谈到大学生如何写毕业论文时曾说到选择论题的规则有如下四条:“1)选题必须符合学生的兴趣; 2)需要的资源是可以找到的,也就是说这些材料学生能够伸手可及; 3)需要的资源是可以驾驭的,也就是说属于他的知识范围之内; 4)研究方法符合学生的经验.\"这些规则看似平淡无奇,似乎在重复一句话:“谁想写论文,就必须写他能够写的论文.”
总之,确定论文题目应当在一个易于操作的小范围里去考虑。因为题目涉及的范围越小,越容易写得全面、深刻,从而使论文更具说服力。
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2 材料搜集
资料按来源有第一手、第二手之分。第一手资料是指最原始的资料,尚未经任何人阐释或说明,如调研的数据、采访的笔记、收集的信件、文学艺术作品等。第二手资料由第一手资料转化而成。第一手资料经他人研讨或被他人引用、阐释而转变成第二手资料。第二手资料可能是一篇引用他人科研成果的论文;也可能是某作者就某一课题或作品所撰写的专著或论文。有扎实依据的论文应兼有一、二手两种资料。
从某种意义上说,选择与确定论题的过程首先是收集和阅读资料的过程。资料的来源主要是学校的图书馆和资料室,以及互联网的相关网站。查找、收集资料的过程中应适当地做些笔记,阅读资料时应摘录事实、数据、论点等,他们是撰写论文中原始素材的重要组成部分。摘录时还应记录资料的出处及来源,内容包括:作者姓名、书名、版本、出版单位、出版地点、出版日期和参考资料的页码等;若是期刊,则应记录下作者姓名、文章标题、刊物名称、期刊号、资料所在页码等。这些都是为论文完成之后列出参考文献提供方便。
此外,互联网为写作毕业论文提供了极大的方便,但网上充斥着各种各样的信息,须注意甄别是专家权威的论述还是业余爱好者的闲扯,在引进论文时还须说明是否是专家权威的观点,并注明出处,以免抄袭之嫌.除了一些大型搜索引擎外,以下是几个值得推荐的国内外在线图书馆网址:
1.中国国家图书馆:http://www.nlc.gov。cn
2.清华大学图书馆:http://www.lib.tsinghua。edu。cn/ 3.北京大学图书馆:http://www。lib。pku.edu。cn/ 4.北京师范大学图书馆:http://www.lib.bnu。edu。cn/
5.北京外国语大学图书馆:http://www。bfsu。edu。cn/enet/lib/tsg。htm 6.南京大学图书馆:http://202.119.47。3
7.复旦大学图书馆:http://www.library。fudan。edu。cn 8.厦门大学图书馆:http://210.34.4。20/
9.广东外语外贸大学图书馆:http://202.116。197。6/gplib。htm 10.中国在线图书馆:http://netsupport.tsinghua.edu.cn/navigation/navindex.htm
11.人文科学在线杂志图书馆:http://166。111.88.20/index。htm 12.英国外语辅助教学图书馆:http://www.sussex.ac.uk/langc/call.html 13.美国OCLC联机计算机图书馆中心:http://newfirstsearch。oclc。org/ 14.美国国会图书馆:http://lcweb.loc。gov
15.美国世界图书馆网络中心:http://library。usask。ca/ejournals 几个值得推荐的中英文在线数据库和网站:
1.语言文学在线资料库:http://www.silverplatter。com/catalog/mlab.htm
2.英语和外语教学在线杂志:http://www.u-net。com/eflweb/home。htm 3.ERIC英语教学文摘档案库:http://eric—web/tc。columbia.edu/abstracts/
4.中国期刊网:http://166。111.88.20/index.htm 5.Uncover期刊论文原文传递服务系统:http://uncweb。carl.org/reveal/ 在资料使用过程中要特别注意避免抄袭或剽窃。有意或无意地使用他人的观
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点、意见、数据或词句等等,但不注明出处,会给读者造成一种错觉,似乎论文中所述的内容都源于论文作者个人的研究,这种情况即是抄袭或剽窃。
3 构思与拟定提纲
收集到一定资料后,要对资料进行整理和组织,在此基础上提出需深入探讨的问题,也就是初步确定题目及主题句。主题句可以说是题目的扩展,一般为能够准确概述论文的主要议题和观点的完整的一两句话,是对所要讨论问题的高度概括。
文化教育大类论文一般由序言(Introduction)、正文(Body)、结语(Conclusion)三个部分。提纲可以按照这三大部分分别列出主要观点或要讨论和解决的问题,所列各点都将构成论文的基本内容。
提纲的类别按其语言表达方式大致可分为三类:标题式、句子式、段落式。标题式提纲简洁明了,文字上只使用单个词或短语;句子提纲都由完整句构成,每句体现一个思想。句式提纲在处理复杂内容时优点明显;段落式提纲费时较多,但一旦写成也就相当于论文初稿的框架。
论文提纲一般有以下几个层次: I.第一个主要论点
A.说明主要论点的第一点 1.举例说明 2.再举事例说明
(若有必要还可进一步细分,下同) (1)…… (2)……
B.说明主要论点的第二点 1.举例说明
2。再举事例说明 II.第二个主要论点 (步骤同上)
下面我们假设论文题目为《中西文化差异在动物习语中的反映》,设定它的中心论点为“以汉语和英语里常出现的动物习语为切入点,阐释动物在中西文化里的象征意义,进而分析动物习语反映出的两种文化差异”.提纲可以列为:
I.第一个主要论点:喻体相同,喻义相似。即同一动物词语,用在不同的语言环境中意义也相差无几.
1.举例说明:狐狸fox、猪pig、狼wolf等词在汉英中的相似比喻用法。 2。再举事例说明:一些汉英中常见的成语所表达的意义也极为相似,如: When the cats are away,the mice will play. 猫儿不在,老鼠作怪。
II.第二个主要论点:喻体相同,喻义相异。即同一动物词语,用在不同的语言环境中意义却不同。
1。举例说明:狗(dog)、猫头鹰(owl)等词在汉语中常为贬义,英文中却常用作褒义。
2.再举事例说明:孔雀(peacock)、喜鹊(magpie)等在汉语中常为褒义用法,而在英文中常含贬义寓意。
III.第三个主要论点:喻体相异,喻义相似。即不同的动物词语在不同的语
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言环境中表达相似的意义。
1。举例说明:表达“勇敢、威猛\"的含义时,汉语里常用“老虎”来比喻,而英语中擅用“狮子”(lion)来形容.
2。再举事例说明:以一些成语来作为例证进一步说明,如“eat like a horse (狼吞虎咽)” ;“four tigers of Asia (亚洲四小龙)\"等.
IV.第四个主要论点:喻体与喻义的无对应性
A.说明主要论点的第一点:英语里存在,汉语里空缺。即有些动物词语我们在汉语里一般是不用来作喻体的,而英语中却不乏使用。
1。举例说明:如“nightingale”(夜莺;英语里用其指代告密者,坐探) ;“albatross”(信天翁;英语里用来比喻沉重的负担,无法摆脱的烦恼;障碍)
2.再举事例说明:其他一些词语如:“red herring”(熏鲱) ;“oyster\"(牡蛎)等.
B.说明主要论点的第二点:汉语里存在,英语里空缺.即有一些动物词语经常出现在汉语比喻句中,英语里却无从查起。
1.举例说明:中国人喜欢用“鸳鸯\"来象征爱情,但在西方人眼里这种动物只不过是一种鸭子“mandarin duck”,并没有任何象征意义.因此我们只有把“棒打鸳鸯”这个成语中的“鸳鸯\"译为“love birds(爱情鸟)”才能表达确切的含义.
2.再举事例说明:“鸿雁”、“啄木鸟\"、“黄鱼”等也是英语中见不到的动物词语,我们在译这些词时也就不得不带上汉语的色彩——“Chinese wild goose”;“woodpecker ” ;“yellow fish”。
4 论文构成
论文的构成包括中英文论文摘要、关键词、正文、结语、脚注或尾注和参考文献。
1.论文摘要
论文摘要是对所写文章主要内容的精炼概括.书写论文摘要的主要目的是为了便于读者用最短的时间了解研究的主要信息。写英文摘要目的是使我们的文章能够进行国际交流的唯一途径。摘要首先接触读者,给读者第一印象;英文摘要写得好坏,关系到是否能被国外检索系统收录和被引用。写英文摘要注意东西方文化差异,东方文化沟通的责任由读者(听者)承担,而西方把此重任赋予写作(讲话)者.所以写(说)明白对于英语文献(讲话)是基本的要求.美国人称摘要为“Abstract\而英国人则喜欢称其为“Summary”.摘要是一个独立的部分,换句话说,别人不看文章,只看摘要就能了解作者的研究工作。一般来讲,英文论文摘要在150字左右.高职高专的毕业生可以写到80-150字即可。
论文摘要分陈述性的(Descriptive)和资料性的(Informational)两类.陈述性摘要只陈述文章的主题,不介绍内容。资料性的摘要除了介绍主题外,还应介绍文章的要点和各个要点的主要内容。
摘要可以包括三个组成部分:
①点明主题,解析文章的目的或意图;
②介绍主要内容,使读者迅速了解文章的概貌; ③提出结论或建议,以供读者参考。
下面我们主要谈谈对英文摘要的写作要求:
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在写作英文摘要时,要避免过于笼统的、空洞无物的一般论述和结论。要尽量利用文章中的最具体的语言来阐述你的方法、过程、结果和结论,这样既可以给读者一个清晰的思路,又可以使你的论述言之有物、有根有据,使读者对你的研究工作有一个清晰、全面的认识。(西方的读者在阅读论文时也总是特别关注论文有什么创新独到之处,否则就认为论文是不值得读的.所以重要的论文摘要中一定要强调这一点。)
文章摘要应该用简洁、明确的语言将论文的“目的(Purposes)”,主要的研究“过程(Procedures)”及所采用的“方法(Methods)”,由此得到的主要“结果(Results)\"和得出的重要“结论(Conclusions)\"表达清楚.如有可能,还应尽量提一句论文结果和结论的应用范围和应用情况,能反映论文的主要信息。也就是说,要写好英文摘要,作者必须回答好以下几个问题:
1) 本文的目的或要解决的问题(What do I want to do?) 2) 解决问题的方法及过程(How did I do it?)
3) 主要结果及结论(What results did I get and what conclusions can I draw?)
4) 本文的创新、独到之处(What is new and original in this paper? a. 目的(What do I want to do?)
主要说明作者写作此文的目的,或本文主要解决的问题。一般来说,一篇好的英文摘要,一开头就应该把作者本文的目的或要解决的主要问题非常明确地交待清楚。必要时,可利用论文中所列的最新文献,简要介绍前人的工作,但这种介绍一定要极其简练。在这方面的具体要求有两点:
1) Eliminate or minimize background information(不谈或尽量少谈背景信息).
2) Avoid repeating the title or part of the title in the first sentence of the abstract (避免在摘要的第一句话重复使用题目或题目的一部分).
b.过程与方法(How did I do it?) 在英文摘要中,过程与方法的阐述起着承前启后的作用。开头交待了要解决的问题(What do I want to do)之后,接着要回答的自然就是如何解决问题(How did I do it),而且,最后的结果和结论也往往与研究过程及方法是密切相关的。大多数作者在阐述过程与方法时,最常见的问题是泛泛而谈、空洞无物,只有定性的描述,使读者很难清楚地了解论文中解决问题的过程和方法。
c。 结果和结论(What results did I get and what conclusions can I draw?) 结果和结论部分代表着文章的主要成就和贡献,论文有没有价值,值不值得读者阅读,主要取决于作者所获得的结果和所得出的结论.如有可能,在结尾部分还可以将论文的结果和他人最新的研究结果进行比较,以突出论文的主要贡献和创新、独到之处(回答What is new and original in this paper)。
d。 如何提高英文摘要的文字效能 (How to enhance the abstract’s efficiency?)
为了提高文字效能,应尽量删去所有多余的字、句.在这方面一般有两个原则:
1) Limit the abstract to new information(摘要中只谈新的信息)。 2)Strive for brevity(尽量使摘要简洁).
e。 关于英文摘要的句法 (The syntax of the abstract) 关于英文摘要的句法,有三个原则:
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1) 尽量用短句(use short sentences)。
2) 描述作者的工作一般用过去时态(因为工作是在过去做的),但在陈述由这些工作所得出的结论时,应该用现在时态.
3) 一般都应使用动词的主动语态,如:写成A exceeds B比写成B is exceeded by A更好.
英文摘要中的常见句型:
Some sentence patterns frequently used as topic sentences: 1) The purpose of this paper…
2) The primary goal of this research is… 3) The overall objective of this study is… 4) In this paper, we aim at…
5) The chief aim of the present work is to investigate…
6) With his research , the author's endeavor is to explain why… 7) The main objective of our investigation has been to obtain some knowledge of…
8) The experiment being made by our research group is aimed at obtaining the result of…
9) The emphasis of this study lies in…
Useful sentence patterns used in developing sentences: 1) The method used in our study is known as…
2) The procedure they followed can be briefly described as… 3) The fundamental feature of this story is as follows. 4) The experiment consists of three steps, which are described in… 5) Recent experiments in this area suggested that… Useful sentence patterns in concluding sentences: 1) In conclusion, we state that …
2) In summing up it may be stated that…
3) The result of the experiment indicate that… 4) The research we have done suggests that…
5) As a result of our experiments, we concluded that…
6) The author has satisfactorily come to the conclusion that… 7) Finally, a summary is given of…
在写英文论文摘要时值得注意的是,不少学生在完成中文的摘要后,逐词逐句地将中文摘要翻译为英文,往往造成语句不通,无章法、无逻辑之感,若不看中文就让人难以理解。因此,建议同学们不一定要完全按照中文摘要来编写英文摘要,只要能够反映出中文摘要的主要内容,句子通顺、没有语法错误即可.下面我们以一篇学生的论文摘要为例。
摘 要:语言作为人类社会的一个组成部分,从一定程度上反映了某个民族的价值观、社会习俗、宗教信仰和历史背景等方面的特征,它是文化的组成部分和载体。由于各国文化背景不同,使用不同语言的民族在其漫长的历史演变过程中形成了异彩纷呈的文化特色。习语作为语言精华,集中体现了各个民族的个性文化特征。在翻译方面习语也以它独特的表现形式说明了只有在了解和掌握两个民族各不相同的文化渊源的基础上,才能顺利进行习语的翻译。
关键词:文化差异;民族;习语;翻译
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Abstract
The language is regarded as a component of the human society, have reflected the characteristic in respects such as the values, social usage, religious belief and historical background of a certain nationality,etc. from a certain degree, it is component and carrier of the culture。 Because the culture background of various countries is different, use the nationality of different languages to form the culture characteristic that radiant splendour appears in its long historical development. The idiom embodies a concentrated reflection of the individual character culture characteristic of each nationality as language quintessence。 The idiom has been explained only on the basis of understanding and grasping cultural origin that two nationalities have nothing in common with each other in the form of its unique behavior too in translating, we could carry on the translation of the idiom smoothly.
我们通过对照其中文摘要,会明显发现英文摘要几乎完全是按汉语顺序翻译过来的,造成了多处语法错误及语句不通。下面是修改过的英文摘要,同学们可以做适当的比较,以便掌握好英文摘要的写作技巧。
Abstract
Language is regarded as a component of the human society。 In some degree, it reflects the sense of value, social customs, religious belief and historical background of a certain nation. Language is a part and the carrier of a nation’s culture. Because of different culture backgrounds, different nations' people have developed their various and colorful cultures。 Idioms embody a concentrated reflection of the individual culture characteristic of each nationality as language quintessence。 So, when we translate the idioms, we must understand and grasp the different nations’ cultural origin. And only on the basis of that can we translate the idioms smoothly and correctly。
2.关键词
论文的关键词一般要求3-5个即可,所选词必须是论文所论述的主题密切相关的词组.
3.正文
正文一般包括序言、主体、结语;高职高专的毕业论文也可只有主体部分. 序言一般包括论文的主要论点、论证目的和意义、论证中采用的方法、拟采用的例证材料和论证的结果或结论。主要论点即论文拟论证和回答的问题.论证的目的和意义即论证有关问题的必要性,如以往某些方面的研究尚未取得结论,或发现以往的研究结果存在一定失误,或者以往的研究中提出的新问题需更进一步探讨等等.有关方法的讨论应充分说明为何拟采用的方法适用于此论题的讨论,如比较、调研综述、逐条论述、例案分析等方法。论证的结果或结论只需列举几条加以概括,以促使读者读完全文,对论证的结果作出评估.写序言时,不要认为
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已有了摘要就可以省略摘要的内容。序言中不仅应包括摘要中的全部内容,而且需提供更多、更详尽的信息。
论文主体也就是文章的讨论分析部分。该部分需逐一对论点进行分析讨论,要求层次清楚,分析透彻,论据充分.
若用英文写论文,在叙述人们普遍认为是真实的情况时,用现在时态;现在时也可用于描述明显的、常识性的事物,如“Jane Eyre is the masterpiece of Charlotte Bronté— the famous British novelist。”(《简·爱》是英国著名女作家夏洛蒂·勃朗特的杰作)。在叙述调研中所做的工作时可用过去时,如:“We made a questionnaire among 600 vocational college students.\" 在说明事实、论据时用现在时,如“This method is applicable to both listening and speaking。”事实和论据在作为调研过程中所发现的资料说明时,可用过去时,如“We found many students not good at speaking English。”
4.结语
这部分在论文中所占篇幅最小,但这部分集中描述该论文的论证成果或结论,对全文会起到一个升华的作用。在写结语时应首先重复“序言”中有关课题的内容,突出为何该项课题,同时也以此再次告知读者开展此项课题要达到的目的.述说结语内容时注意不能使用过于自信的语言或作过高的评价,表述用词应仔细斟酌。例如:“I am the first person to find the effective method。” (我是发现这个有效方法的第一人),此类说法欠妥,应选用留有余地的词句,如“I might be the first to find the method so effective.”(我可能是发现这个方法如此有效的第一人).这种场合常用的词有could, may, might等。
结语部分还有必要提出如何深入探讨有关问题,不少论文常忽视这一点。应对自己提出这样的问题:若还有机会继续做该课题,准备怎么做?在该课题上已投入很多时间,无疑一定清楚还有哪些尚未完成的,或还有哪些需要与其他人商榷的地方.
5.脚注或尾注
脚注或尾注的作用是注明论文中被引用资料的确切来源或出处。脚注即将注释放在当页下端,尾注是将全部注释集中置于正文之后.脚注和尾注的格式基本一样,一般顺序为:作者名,书名,出版社,出版年,被引用资料的页码;若是杂志中的某篇文章,则要注明:作者名、文章名、杂志名、发表时间、文章出自的页码。被引用的资料第一次做注时,这些内容需全部写出,以后再次或多次引用同一资料时可简略,只需标明书名或文章名及来源页码即可.
如:胡文仲。跨文化交际面面观。北京:外语教学与研究出版社,2003:175. Elaine Showalter , A Literature of Their Own。 Princeton University Press , 1977, p。21。
6.参考文献
论文若采用尾注方式,参考文献则写在尾注后面。参考文献目录列出对论文产生影响的所有参考资料,按作者姓氏的首字母顺序排列,文献资料包括书籍、论文、采访记录、电视节目等等。
如:中文参考文献举例说明:
邓炎昌、刘润清.语言与文化——英汉语言文化对比[M]。北京:外语教学与研究出版社, 2004。
杜学增。中英文化习俗比较[M]。北京:外语教学与研究出版社, 2003. 胡文仲。 跨文化交际面面观[M]。 北京:外语教学与研究出版社,1999.
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平洪、张国扬。英语习语与英美文化[M]。北京:外语教学与研究出版社。 2001。
王丽峰。常用词语联想意义的中西文化比较[J]。郑州轻工业学院学报( 社会科学版) ,第5 卷·第1 期。
英文参考文献举例说明:
Bromhead, Peter, Life in Modern America, Longman Group Limited, London, 1978。 Eiger, Richard W。, The World Almanac Books, New Jersey, A K-III Communications Company, 1998。
Kenan, Lucette R., Modern American Profiles, Harcourt Brace Jovanovich, Inc。,
1975.
注意:脚注或尾注中外国作者名按他们的习惯说法,即名在前,姓在后;而在最后的参考文献中,则与中文一样,姓在前,名在后。
高职毕业论文参考案例
案例1.浅谈英文导游用语的基本特点
—-英文导游用语结构和内容分析
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【论文摘要】本论文主要基于英文导游词的基本特点,通过对英文导游词用语的结构和内容两方面的具体分析来论述英文导游用语的特点。首先对英文导游词进行基本概述;其次,通过对英文导游用语四部分结构的分析,说明导游用语在结构上的基本特点;再次,通过具体五方面对英文导游用语进行内容上的分析。更进一步在内容上阐述英文导游用语的基本特点。最后,对英文导游结构和内容上的特点进行综合分析总结.
关键词:特点概述;结构特点;内容特点;综述
Abstract: This is mainly the basic characteristic based on English guide’s word, through come , expound the fact English guide characteristic of term to structure and content of English guide word 。Two respect of concrete analyses of term. At first, Carry on the basic summary to the English guide’s word; Secondly, through an analysis of four parts of structure of English guide's term, prove guide’s term is in the structural basic characteristic; Moreover, carry on the analysis on the content to the English guide’s term through five concrete respects。 Go still one step further to explain the basic characteristic of the English guide's term in content。 Finally, go on comprehensive analysis summarize to English guide structure and characteristic of content。
Key words: Summary of Characteristic, characteristic of Structural, characteristic of Content, survey
英文导游用语具有多样性的特点。因为它所反映的旅游景观本身具有多样性,导游员的思想情感审美观念、语言修养具有多样性,并且游客审美的多样化也要求导游语言的风格具有多样化的特点.只有在掌握丰富的资料的基础上,经过科学系统的加工整理,并在实践中不断修改、丰富和完善,才能形成具有自己特色的导游词。尽管如此,当我们具体实践过程中,也应注重一些基本的用语特点,以便更好的将英文导游词运用得当,使其更容易被游客接受采纳。因此,通过查阅、分析大部分优秀典型英语导游用语的特点,进而从英文导游用语的结构特点和内容特点两方面总结出英文导游用语的基本特点,通过此论文进行具体细致的分析总结,从而促进今后的英文导游词的写作.
一、英文导游词的基本特点概述
导游词是导游人员引导游客游览观光的讲解词。其作用有三:一是引导游客观光游览,二是宣传旅游景点.二者相辅相承密不可分。
导游词创作来源于导游工作实践,又完全服务于导游工作,是导游员必修的课题,它是一种比较特殊的文本。它是通过外语导游员(以下称导游员) 之口直
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接说给外国旅游者(以下称旅游者) 听的。导游词大量产生于中国改革开放后入境旅游(inbound tourism) 蓬勃兴起之际。著名的特级导游员周明德老师在他的论文中阐述:“随着现代人类史出现的巨大变化浪潮,世界旅游业也逐步转向以文化与精神享受为目标的新的文化旅游.”这无疑是对导游词创作提出了更高要求。尤其是随着经济文化的发展,旅游事业蒸蒸日上,厚重的历史文化积淀,赏心悦目的人文自然风景,亟待大批优秀导游词出现,以飨旅游观光者。
英文导游用语,其形式之丰富多彩,内容之精彩纷呈,描述手段之变幻莫测,在很大程度上是不同于一般的旅游资料或见闻的.译成英语的导游词通常是供导游员在途中、景点、娱乐场所、商店或餐厅时进行口头讲解服务用的,故又不同于即兴发挥的“现场导游”(on the spot into reduction) 和“途中导游”(on the way into reduction) 。前者是可以“预制的”(pert ran slated) ,后者则需现编词(排除事先准备等因素) 。尽管前者可以预制,但它又不同于一般的笔译(包括旅游资料或见闻的翻译) 。因此,不同形式的英文导游词具有不同的特点,用以适合具体的导游工作场合。但无论形势怎样变化,英文导游词的基本特点却是固定不变的。
下面将从英文导游用语的结构特点和内容特点,两方面对英文导游用语的基本特点进行具体分析论证。
二、英文导游词的结构特点
就英文导游词的结构进行分析,一篇好的导游词跃然纸上,要让人有身临其境的奇妙感觉,这就要求导游员对其在结构上做到:结构严谨,层次清晰,主次分明。
英文导游词的结构一般由四部分组成:
(一)、习惯用语。即游览前的“欢迎词\"、游览结束时的“欢送词”等.
要朴实亲切,富含真情实感,切忌矫揉造作。切忌写成抒情诗或散文什么的,更不能是演讲稿.要注意口语的表达和运用,不能堆砌辞藻.
例如:欢迎词.Welcome to ______! May I introduce my Chinese colleagues to you? This is Mr。 ____ from (China International Travel Service)。 He will travel with you throughout the trip in China。 This is Mr。 ____, our driver。 His bus number is ***。 My name is ______。 I am from CITS。 My job is to smooth your way, care for your welfare, try my best to answer your questions, and be your guide/interest during your stay in ______. If you have any special interest, please tell your tour leader and she/he will let us know. We’ll try our best to make your stay in ____ a pleasant one. We highly appreciate your understanding and co—operation.
欢送词. OK, now ladies and gentleman, what your surprise now? I hope the
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visiting of *** will give you a beautiful impression and I hope you will remember *** forever。
(二)、整体介绍。用概述法介绍旅游目的地,有所依托的介绍整体概况,
尽量将整体景观内容概括叙述,使游客对景观本身有一定的整体印象。这部分应为“虎头”,言词应富有激情,如行云流水,干净利落,使游客产生浓厚兴趣。帮助游客宏观了解,引发游客兴趣。Just as the book said, Tour guides must: Be knowledgeable about all the tour operation procedures and the areas where you are going to visit。叙述词句要尽量简洁、生动,不可拖沓。
(三)、重点讲解.即对主要游览内容的详细讲述,因而是导游词最重要最
精彩的组成部分。重点介绍流览的主要内容,状似“猪肚”,做到史料翔实,内容丰富。注重思想品味和文学品味,突出弘扬民族文化和爱国主义主题.这一部分是最能反映导游员文学功底和导游艺术相融合的精彩篇章,既要有丰富多变、幽默诙谐的导游语言,又要有亲切柔婉的文学艺术手法。要把景观内涵挖掘透彻,引人入胜,激发起游客最深层的热爱祖国山河,赞美承德美景的情感。
(四)、精彩总结.最后收尾依然重要,所谓“豹尾”.前边的导游词是
画好的一条龙,或说一尊即将完成的雕像,只缺最后总结的“点睛\"之笔.这一部分要尽量使游客产生意犹未尽之情,生发出故地重游的欲望。
在导游词用语的结构方面注重以上四点,便可以把握英文导游用语在结构上的特点,真正做到结构严谨、层次清晰、主次分明。
三、英文导游词的内容特点
就英文导游词的内容分析,因为旅游业是为旅游者服务的,根据旅游者的要求和期望,好的导游词的内容应包括informative (内容充实) 、into rigging (生动有趣) 、realistic (真实可信) 、practical (实用性强) 、cultural (文化性强)。
(一)、informative,既是指身为导游人员应对其讲解的景观既有全方位的熟知。一篇优秀的英文导游调必须有丰富的内容,溶入各类知识并旁
征博引、融会贯通、引人人胜.其内容也必须准确无误,令人信服。导游词不能只满足于一般性介绍,应该在介绍景点的同时,注重深层次的内容,渗透相关的文化和历史背景及其作用等相关领域的知识介绍作为补充.如:同类事物的鉴赏、有关诗词的点缀、名家的评论等.这样,会提高英文导游词的档次水准。同时作为导游,也应深入了解与景点相关的背景知识,有助于导游词的灵活运用.
(二)、into rigging,指英文导游词应注重趣味性.由于外国游客对我
国文化的了解并不深入,因此过多的专业词汇,例如:佛教用语、歇后语、对联、匾额、诗文等极具中国特色的词语,并不一定能引起游客的主意,反而会适得其
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反,降低游客的游览兴趣。因此,生动有趣的导游词可以起到调动情趣的作用,为旅途中的游客增加观赏乐趣。为了突出导游调的趣味性,必须注意以下六个方面的问题:
1、编织故事情节。讲解一个景点,要不失时机的穿插趣味盎然访传说和民间故事,以激起游客的兴趣和好奇心理。但是,选用的传说故事必须是健康的,并与景观密切相连。
2、语言生动形象,用词丰富多变。主动形象的语言能将游客导入意境,给他们留下深刻的印象.
3、恰当地运用修辞方法。导游词中,恰当地运用比喻、比拟、夸张、象征等手法,可使静止的景观深化为生动鲜活的画面,揭示出事物的内在美,使游客沉浸陶醉.
4、幽默风趣的韵味。幽默风趣是导游词艺术性的重要体现,可使其锦上添花,气氛轻松。
5、情感亲切。导游词语言应是文明、友好和富有人情味的语言,应言之有情,让游客赏心悦耳、倍感亲切温暖.
6、随机应变,临场发挥。导游词创作成功与否,不仅表现其知识渊博,也反映出导游技能技巧。
(三)、realistic,指英文导游词的景点介绍内容要准确无误、真实、可信.要对游客负责,不随意编纂不切实际的背景知识介绍。
(四)、practical,英文导游语言是一种具有丰富表达力、生动形
象的口头语言,这就是说,在导游创作中要注意多用日语词汇和浅显易懂的书面语词汇.要避免难懂的书面语词汇和音节拗口的词汇。多用短句,
以便讲起来顺口,听起来轻松。针对英文导游特点,导游词不是以一代百、千篇一律的。它必须是从实际以发,因人、因时而异,要有的放矢,即根据不同的游客以及当时的情绪和周围的环境进行导游讲解之用。每篇导游词要有不同于他人的闪光点,不能照搬各类书刊的大段描述,要善于编织自己的故事情节,做到声情并茂,与时俱进,“老段子新唱词”方能取胜。切忌不顾游客千差万别,导游词仅一篇的现象.编写导游词一般应有假设对象,这样才能有针对性。强调导游口语化,不意味着忽视语言的规范化,增强英文导游词的适用性。
(五)、cultural,英文导游词要注重文化性。导游词中应注重弘扬我国
的悠久历史和特色文化。编写导游词必须注意语言的品味。导游词语言必须注意品位,一要强调思想品位,因为,弘扬爱国主义精神是导游员义不容辞的职责;二要讲究文学品位,导游词的语言应该是规范的,文字是准确的,结构是严谨的,
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内容层次是符合逻辑的,这是对篇导游词的基本要求.如果再在关键之外适当的引经据典,得体地运用写诗词名句和名人警句,就会是导游词的文学品位更为提高。
英文导游词的特点,是导游者所具有的精神特点和语言艺术的综合反映.马克思曾引用过十八世纪的德国自然科学家及文学家布封说过的一句话:“风格即入”,并指出“真理是普遍的,它不属于我一个人,而为大家所有,真理占有我,而我不占有真理,我只是构成我的精神个体性的形式”.这里的“精神个体性”,就是指人特有的思想气质、生活经验、道德修养、语言才能等精神特点。英文导游用语作为导游艺术的一种表现形态,犹如人的风度一样,是从导游语言整体结构上所显现出来的特点,与导游内容的客观的特征有机统一所造成的一种整体现象,所以英文导游用语的特点是不同的.但“真理”是普遍的,因此,英文导游用语的基本特点是不变的,我们可以通过研究分析具体英文导游事例,来归纳总结英文导游用语的基本特点,从而用“普遍”的“真理”去引导英文导游词的写作.
不同的英文导游词依据不同的种类、形式,在特点上均有所不同,但其基本特点不变。在结构上仍以四部分--习惯用语、整体介绍、重点讲解、精彩总结为基本形式。文中以具体事例来分析了这一基本特点。在内容上,则根据不同的环境选取不同的内容特色作为侧重点,但整体仍保持内容充实、生动有趣、真实可信、实用性强 、文化性强等五方面的基本特点。文章通过对各个内容特点的细分来论述英文导游用语在内容上的特点。无论英文导游词的具体特点如何改变,结构和内容上的基本特点是不变的。身为导游,只要在掌握丰富的资料的基础上,依据英文导游英语的基本结构和内容特点,经过科学系统的加工整理,并在实践中不断修改、丰富和完善,便能够形成具有自己特色的导游词。
参考文献
陈刚.涉外导游词翻译的特点及策略.北京:中国旅游出版社.2005。7 导游词创作的特点和要求.承德日报.2003。7 英文导游词的写作特点.千英翻译网.2005。6 中国景点导游介绍.中国导游网.2006 英文导游词的具体特点.导游论坛.2004。6
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案例2. 浅谈“中西文化比较\"课程学习
摘 要:通过对《中西文化比较》课程教材的一些看法,本文借助大量实际案例和理论,旨在阐述掌握中西方文化的差异和习俗在我们生活以及工作中的重要性。学好这门课程不仅能开阔我们的眼界,而且对于提高我们的跨文化交际能
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力有着极其重要的意义。
关键词:中西方文化;习俗;交际;礼仪 Abstract:
The purpose of this paper is about the importance of mastering the different culture in our life。 It is observed by four methods, which are social relationship, social custom, social etiquette and concept of value。 The result showed that there are many differences between our Chinese culture and the Westerners’。 If we can learn and master them well, we can improve our ability of communication with the Westerners.
Key words: Chinese and Western culture; custom; communication; etiquette
通过对《中西文化比较》这门课程的学习,使我了解到了中西方文化的差异和习俗并且认识到了文化差异在我们生活以及工作中的重要性。
刚拿到这本书的时候,我大致地翻阅了一下.发现本书的内容是全英文的,而且偶尔会配有一两张令人费解的图表,除此之外都是很深的理论。这些都令我对这门课以及教材产生了困惑.但是不久,我的想法彻底改变了。在课堂上,我跟随着老师的步伐进入到了文化的世界,在这个世界里我认识到了自己的肤浅,了解到了文化领域的无限之大.这门课程不仅帮助我学到了很多东西,而且还激发了我的求知欲望和进取心。
本书共有16章,前2章主要讲的是过去和现在的世界、全球化、什么是文化以及跨文化交际需要注意的事项。其中”什么是文化”这一部分令我感触最深,书中对文化的阐述不仅使我对文化一词有了很深的理解而且令我思考了很多。“文化就像是冰山.”是啊,我们看到的只是冰山的一角。“文化就像是水中的鱼儿。”它们永远不能看到整个大海。我们所看到的文化的各方面包括历史、文学、习俗等都是客观的文化。但是大部分的文化都在我们的视线和意识之外,这部分文化是不容易被我们所察觉和了解的.我认为学习这门课程的目的在于让我们掌握更多的文化差异和各地习俗,从而能帮助我们学习如何同来自异国的人沟通、交往、生活以及工作。
本书的结构十分清晰,便于学生阅读和课下自学。每一章里的各个知识点中都大致包括以下四部分:第一部分为引言。通过对这部分的阅读,我们可以大概地了解本章的内容,便于我们对本章知识点的了解和掌握。第二部分为与主题相关的知识点和具体案例.通过对知识点的学习,使我们了解到在进行跨文化交流时应该注意的地方和具体细节。我认为本书最好的地方是我们可以通过学习案例来增长实际经验。如果只学习理论的知识,而不接触实际的案例,不异于纸上谈兵.通过对案例的分析和理解,我们可以获得正确的方法,改正在我们脑中积藏
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已久的错误的认识。除此之外,这些案例都贴切生活并且非常有趣,适当的阅读案例不仅可以让我们摆脱学习理论的枯燥,而且还在娱乐的同时获得了知识.第三部分为扩展思维.作者在这部分为我们设了几个问题,通过对问题的思考和回答可以开动脑筋,使我们思想活跃,而且最重要的是可以巩固先前学到的知识.第四部分是案例分析题.作者会举一个现实的例子并且在后面附上几个问题.在课上,老师会让我们一起讨论并发表自己的意见,课堂气氛活跃,同学都十分踊跃,争着把自己的想法和大家分享.全书最吸引我的地方是第二部分。因为从中我可与了解到许多与主题相关联的知识并且通过实例掌握中西方的文化差异。本书所列举的例子不仅贴切生活,而且都让我非常受用,其涉及的范围非常广泛,包括与人相处,社会关系等等。这些都会对我们的学习、生活和就业有很大帮助。
除此之外,本书的内容也非常丰富。从社会关系的差别、社会习俗的差异、社会礼仪的差异以及价值观与道德标准的差异等方面入手,并辅以相关的案例,极大地丰富了我们的知识和见解。
一、社会关系的差别。西方人平等意识较强,无论贫富,人人都会尊重自己,不允许别人侵犯自己的权利.同时,人人都能充分地尊重他人。在美国,很少有人以自己显赫的家庭背景为荣,也很少人以自己贫寒出身为耻,因他们都知道,只要自己努力,是一定能取得成功的。正如美国一句流行的谚语所言:“只要努力,牛仔也能当总统。”(If working hard, even a cowboy can be president。)但在新中国,传统的君臣、父子等级观念在人们的头脑中仍根深蒂固,家庭背景和社会人际关系在人的生活中仍起着相当重要的作用。正如书中所举的案例:一个中国的教授因做研究要借用某大学的相关书籍。他害怕他不能使用那所大学的图书馆.但当他发现他的一个老同学在那所学校工作时,他完全放心了。因为他知道他们有关系,他的同学会帮助他,因此他可以毫不费力地去那所大学借书了。但是如果是一位美国的教授想要去该所大学借书,他会给该所大学打电话询问是否有特殊的政策可以让他借书。一旦他得到允许,他才会去那所大学借书.由此我们可以看出西方人愿意借助自己的力量去解决问题,而中国人则愿意依靠人际关系来解决问题。
二、社会习俗的差异。美国妇女和中国妇女的地位都不高,但美国妇女却有幸能享受许多传统的骑士习俗,尊重妇女的礼节在美国社会随处可见:男士为女士开门;扶女士下车;在马路上,男士走外侧,女士走内侧,以给女士提供保护; 女士进餐厅时,所有的男士都要起立;餐桌前,男士要为女士拉开椅子,待女士站好了位置再把椅子送回女士的身后,请她就坐.中国社会对女性的照顾和礼节似乎要少一些,且有一些专家注意到:汉字中带“女\"字旁的有相当一部分含有贬义,如“妖、妓、奸、奴、嫉、妒”等.除此之外,西方人的婚姻观与中国人的
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婚姻观有着极大的不同。因为他们认为:婚姻纯属个人私事,任何人不能干涉;同时婚姻不属于道德问题.一个人有权选择和他最喜欢的人生活在一起,一旦发现现有的婚姻是一个错误,他有权作第二次选择。如果夫妇一方爱上了第三者,任何一方都不会受谴责.在他们看来:强迫两个不相爱的人生活在一起是残忍的.中国人的婚姻相对来说比较稳定.这是因为中国人把婚姻当作人生的头等大事,每个人都谨慎对待,认真选择,一旦决定了,就不会轻易改变。而且中国人一向把婚姻当作一个严肃的道德问题,喜新厌旧、第三者插足都被认为是极不道德的事情。
三、社会礼仪的差异。中国人路遇熟人时,往往会无所顾忌地说:“啊呀,老兄,你近来又发福了!”或者以关切的口吻说:“老兄,你又瘦了,要注意身体啊!”而西方人若听你说“You are fat”或“You are so thin”,即使是熟人,也会感到尴尬和难以作答.除此之外,中国人见面喜欢问对方姓名、年龄、单位及收入等。而西方人很讨厌人家问及年龄与收入等个人私事.中国人路遇熟人总爱寒暄道:“吃饭了吗?”“到哪去?\"“上班呀?\"等。在我们看来这是一种有礼貌的打招呼用语,而若你跟西方人这样打招呼“Have you had your meal?”“Where are you going?”他们则会认为你想请他吃饭或者干涉其私事,会引起误解.西方人见面,通常招呼道:“Hello!\"“How do you do!”“Nice day, isn’t it?” 对于别人的赞扬,中国人通常表示谦虚,并有一套谦虚之词,象“惭愧\"、“哪里”、“寒舍”、“拙文 ”等.而西方人总是高兴地回答“Thank you!”以表接受。 中国人用“谢谢\"的场合较西方人少,尤其是非常亲近的朋友和家庭成员之间不常说“谢谢.”而西方人整天把“Thank you! ”挂在嘴边,即使是亲朋好友和家庭成员之间也常如此.中国人收到礼物时往往放在一边,待送礼人走后才打开来看.而西方人收到礼物时要当着客人的面马上打开并连声称好.中国人殷勤好客,一杯杯地斟酒,一遍遍地上菜,使西方人觉得难以对付。 而西方人的习惯是:Help yourself,Please!中国人在饭桌上的热情好客经常被西方人误解为不文明的行为.因西方人认为:客人吃多吃少完全由自己决定,用不着主人为他加菜添酒;而且饮食过量是极不体面的事情,因此客人吃饭后,主人不必劝他再吃。一位美国客人看到中国主人不断地给他挟菜很不安,事后他抱怨说“主人把我当猪一样看待”.中国人送客人时,主人与客人常说:“慢走!”“小心点!\"“再见,走好啊!\" “你们回去吧!\" “请留步”等. 而西方人只说:“Bye bye!\" “See you later!” “See you next time!” “Goodnight!\" 书中也有好多这样因文化差异造成的误解和尴尬.例如:一个在南京工作的外国人在拥挤的街头骑车锻炼身体,在他后面的一辆自行车铃声不断响起,但是他注意到旁边还有足够大的空间让那辆自行车通过。他给后面的骑车人让出了更大的空间,但是那个人并没有
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通过而且继续按着他的车铃.在中国的文化背景下,那个骑车人是在开善意的玩笑-—给外国人加油,只不过他的方式没有被外国人理解和接受.因为在西方,别人的铃声或喇叭声意味着你妨碍了交通,这一点是不能开玩笑的。从以上例子不难看出:西方文化在许多方面与中国的文化确实存在着很大的差异.文化障碍的确会影响跨文化交际,因此我们有必要研究不同文化间的差异。
四、价值观与道德标准的差异.西方人崇拜个人奋斗,尤其为个人取得的成就自豪,从来不掩饰自己的自信心、荣誉感以及在获得成就后的狂喜.相反,中国文化不主张炫耀个人荣誉,而是提倡谦虚.中国人反对王婆卖瓜式的自吹自擂,然而中国式的自我谦虚或自我否定却常常使西方人大为不满。例如:西方人称赞中国人:“Your English is very good,” “You've done a very good job!\"但中国人常常会说:“No, no, my English is very poor\";“No, I don’t think so。 It's the result of joint efforts.”这种谦虚,在西方人看来,不仅否定了自己,还否定了赞扬者的鉴赏力。这种中国式的谦虚会影响跨文化的交际。另外,西方人自我中心意识和独立意识很强,不习惯依靠别人.主要表现在:(1 )自己为自己负责。在弱肉强食的社会,每个人的生存方式及生存质量都取决于自己的能力,因此,每个人都必须自我奋斗,把个人利益放在第一位.(2)不习惯关心他人,帮助他人,不过问他人的事情。(3)正由于以上两点,主动帮助别人或接受别人帮助在西方常常是令人难堪的事.因为接受帮助只能证明自己无能,而主动帮助别人会被认为是干涉别人私事.例如,如果你经常搭乘飞机,你一定能发现一个有意思的现象。通常会有一堆家人或朋友在接中国人,日本人。但是却没有人为西方人接机,因为西方人会借助自己的力量找到想要去的地方或是解决问题的方法。在那段时间里,他们不需要朋友帮助他们.因为他们相信当地有一定的政策和服务来帮助他们。在陌生的地方,他们可以用一本当地指南到达他们想要去的地方。但是中国人却习惯于依赖朋友的帮助.在中国,中国人奉行的行为准则是“我对他人,对社会是否有用”,个人的价值是在奉献中体现出来的。中国文化推崇一种高尚的情操--无私奉献。在中国,主动关心别人,给人以无微不至的体贴是一种美德,因此,中国人不论别人的大事小事,家事私事都愿主动关心,而这在西方会被视为“多管闲事\"。例如:在中国,对别人的健康状况表示关心是有教养、有礼貌的表现。但对西方人的健康表示关心,就不能按我国的传统方式了。一个中国学生得知其美籍教师生病后,会关切地说“You should go to see a doctor!(你应该到医院看看)”不料,这句体贴的话反而使这位教师很不高兴.因为在这位教师看来,有病看医生这种简单的事情连小孩都知道,用不着任何人来指教.如果就某种小事给人以忠告,那显然是对其能力的怀疑,从而大大伤害其自尊心。
在跨文化交际中,由于文化障碍而导致的信息误解,甚至伤害对方的现象屡
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见不鲜.有时善意的言谈会使对方尴尬无比,礼貌的举止会被误解为荒诞粗俗。因此,研究文化差异,研究正确的跨文化交际行为已成为不可忽视的问题。学习《中西文化比较》这门课程对于提高我们的跨文化交际能力有着极其重要的意义,它能帮助我们正确理解西方人的习俗、礼仪和价值观。从而能使我们在交际过程中,充分了解对方,尊重对方的习俗,以取得最佳的交际效果. 参考文献:
[1] 杜学曾。中英文化习俗比较[M]。北京:外语教学与研究出版社,1997。 [2] 胡文仲。跨文化交际面面观[M]。北京:外语教学与研究出版社,1999。 [3] 徐行言.中西文化比较[M].北京:北京大学出版社,2004。
[4] 朱岐新,张秀桂.中国文化集锦[M]。北京:旅游教育出版社,1994。
案例3—The Impact of Cultural Differences
on International Business Negotiation
1. Introduction
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International business negotiations are far more complex than domestic ones. The difficulties are due to the big differences between the two parties in a negotiation in language, value, behavior patterns, moral standards and so on. All those factors are playing crucial roles in negotiations。 The key to effective cross—cultural communication is knowledge. So we must learn and know as much knowledge as we can. Knowing these cultural differences can help us solve the problems and reduce the misunderstandings in International business negotiations。 Due to these cultural differences, negotiators who come from different part of the world can form different negotiation styles。 The relation between culture and negotiation styles has been the topic of much investigation and research in recent times。 Being familiar with different cultural differences can help us get a close view of different negotiation styles, and all these previous efforts can make the International business negotiation smooth。 The thesis will elaborate on the cultural factors and their influences on negotiation styles in different countries。
2。 Cultural Influences and Types
2。1 Cultural Influences
When two groups from the same country are doing business, it is often possible to expedite the whole negotiation procedure。 Because they have the same cultural background, the mutual communications are easy to understand。 This does not mean they have no obstacle during the whole negotiation procedure, but compare with people who do business from different cultures, they do not have the impact of cultural differences, so the contradictions seem to be easy solved。
If two different cultures are involved, one party without a real knowledge of another culture, it may lead to misunderstandings。 The international negotiators must be careful when handle these cultural differences and do not use the same way like negotiate with local businesspersons.
A great number of real cases show that due to misunderstandings, many businesses were lost。 For example, an American businessman once presented a clock to the daughter of his Chinese counterpart on the occasion of her marriage, not knowing that clocks are inappropriate gifts in China because they are associated with death。 His insult led to the termination of the business relationship。 It is also bad form to give the gifts of great value to the Japanese than those received。
As an international business negotiator, he or she must try his best to learn and know the culture differences in order to avoid some mistakes and through the cultural
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exchange to establish a good cooperation relationship with his partners.
2。2 Cultural Types
Beliefs and behaviors are different from different cultures, because each develops its own means of explaining and coping with life。 Four cultural dimensions can help to explain the differences between cultures. Though the distinctions between them seem clear, the dimension should be regarded as a general guide。 The four dimensions are gender, uncertainty avoidance, power distance and individualism.
Gender cultures can be divided into masculine and feminine types。 Masculine cultures typically value assertiveness, independence, task orientation and self—achievement。 Masculine societies tend to have a rigid division of sex roles. The competitiveness and assertiveness embedded in masculine societies may result in individuals perceiving the negotiation situation in win—or-lose terms. In masculine cultures, the party with the most competitive behavior is likely to gain more。
Feminine cultures value modesty, cooperation, nurturing and solidarity with the less fortunate。 Femininity is related to empathy and social relations.
Uncertainty avoidance This term refers to how uncomfortable a person feel in risky or ambiguous situations. In high uncertainty avoidance cultures, people tend to avoid tense situations。 These cultures tend to observe formal bureaucratic rules, rely on rituals and standards, and trust only family and friends。
In low uncertainty avoidance cultures, people are generally more comfortable with ambiguous situations and are more accepting of risk. Low risk avoiders require much less information, have fewer people involved in the decision-making, and can act quickly. Such cultures dislike hierarchy and typically find it inefficient and destructive。 Deviance and new ideas are more highly tolerated。 Cultures characterized by low uncertainty avoidance are likely to pursue problem-solving solutions rather than maintain the status quo。
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Power distance Power distance refers to the acceptance of authority differences between people—the disparity between those who hold power and those affected by power. High power—distance cultures are status conscious and respectful of age and seniority。 In high power—distance cultures, outward forms of status such as protocol, formality, and hierarchy are considered important. Decisions regarding rewards and redress of grievances are usually based on personal judgments made by power holders。 When someone from a high—masculinity culture attempts to work with someone from a high power—distance culture without either party recognizing the variations in their respective behaviors, clashes are likely to disrupt negotiations. In low power—distance cultures, people strive for power equalization and justice。 A low power—distance cultural values competence over seniority with a resulting consultative management style。 Low masculinity and low power distance may be related to the sharing of information and the offering of multiple proposals as well as more cooperative and creative behavior。
Individualism In individualism cultures, people tend to put tasks before relationships and to value independence highly。 People in these cultures are expected to take care of themselves and to value the needs of the individual over those of the group, community, or society。 Individualistic cultures prefer liner logic and tend to value open conflict。 Members from individualistic societies expect the other side’s negotiation to have the ability to make decision unilaterally。
By contrast, cultures that value collectivism emphasize solidarity, loyalty, and strong interdependence among individuals。 Relationships are based on mutual self—interest and are dependent on the success of the group. Collectivist cultures define themselves in terms of their membership within groups。 Maintaining the integrity of groups is stressed so that cooperation, conflict avoidance, and conformity dominate the culture. Collectivist societies tend to stress abstract, general agreements over concrete, specific issues。
Collectivist negotiators tend to assume that details can be worked out if the negotiators can agree on generalities. Collectivist societies show more concern for the needs of the other party and focus more on group goals than individualistic societies do. Members of collectivist societies chafe when members from individualistic societies promote their own positions and ideas during negotiations.
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3。 The Relevant Cultural Factors
In terms of international business negotiation, the following elements of culture are generally believed to have an important impact on international business negotiation。 Knowing much relevant knowledge of different cultures can make the international business negotiation smooth。
3.1 Language and Communication
The ways in which people communicate, including using verbal and non—verbal language, directly affects international business negotiation. When we communicate with people from other cultures, our body language sometimes helps make the communication easier and more effective, such as by shaking hands when greeting others. This has become such a universal gesture that people all over the world know that it is a signal for greeting.
Sometimes, body language can be more of a hindrance than a favor。 It can lead to misunderstanding since people of different cultures often have different forms of behavior for sending the same message。 For example, nodding one's head is generally meant to show agreement, to indicate ‘yes’。 To the Nepalese and Sri Lankans, however, it meant not ‘yes’, but ‘no’.
So, as a master hand, he must try his best to know as much as information of his counterpart, the proficiency of languages and negotiation techniques are not enough, he also needs to have some mastery of the non—verbal behavior of different cultures。 People use body languages more frequently in daily life. Excellent language and communication can help us make success。
3。2 Values
Values are the standards by which a culture evaluates action and their consequences。 They affect perception and can have a strong emotional impact upon people。 In different cultures, values may vary significantly. One's proper actions in one culture can be seen as wrong in a moral sense in another culture.
Thus, it is important to understand the prevailing values in a particular society and the extent to which they are respected in the everyday behavior of individuals。 Values affect the willingness to take risks, the leadership style and the superior—subordinate relationships, etc。 This is true for the relationships between negotiators within each team。 Every culture has defined priorities for every aspect of
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social life。 The discussion here will focus on values critical for understanding the economic performance of a society, more specifically, and the value that deserve attention in order to develop intercultural communication skills。
3.2.1 Value towards Time
Value towards time and how they shape the way people structure their actions have a pervasive yet invisible influence on international business negotiation。 Differences in punctuality, reflected in everyday negotiation behavior, may probably appear as the most visible consequence。 But differences in times orientations, especially toward the future, are more important as they affect long—range issues such as the strategic framework of decision made when negotiating。
3。3。2 Value towards Relationships
Different patterns of relationship affect international business negotiations through the style of interaction between people, their decision-making process, and the way in which they mix human relationships and business matters, etc。
3。3 Decision—making Process
When faced with a complex negotiation task, people in different countries may use different approaches to make a decision. Knowing these differences will facilitate anticipating the reactions of the other side in business negotiation。
4。 Different Negotiation Styles
4.1 The American Negotiation Style
The United States is among the most advanced countries in economy and technology in the world。 Both its language and currency occupy an important place in the world economy。 English is the most commonly used language in international negotiations and fifty percent of the world trade adopts the U.S. dollars to settle accounts. All of these factors make the American feel very proud of their country and possess very strong national pride and glory, which are fully put up in their trade activities. They often leave a deep impression of superiority to foreign negotiators。
Americans emphasize free competition and individualism。 Very often, the emphasis on self—interest and freedom of the individual can run counter to cooperation, commitment and community。 The business firm values the person who is mobile, energetic, creative and ambitious。
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4.1.1 Language and Communication
For the Americans, the stage of exchanging task-related information in business negotiations is relatively direct, with clear statements of needs and preferences。 They may discuss topics other than business at the negotiation table, such as the weather, sports, etc。, but not for long。 They tend to spend most time in the stage of negotiation—persuasion. They take it for granted that the two parties of a business transaction shall both have good prospects of profit and they will put forward a they—think—it—most-reasonable plan in accordance with this principle. They prefer to clarify their standpoints at the very beginning of the first touch of the two parties and put out their plan so as to strive after the initiative。 If there is a bifurcation, they seldom suspect their own analysis and calculation and usually ask the other party to consider the possibility of making re—composition. Americans tend to make concession throughout the negotiations, settling one issue, then proceeding to the next。 Thus the final agreement is a sequence of several smaller concessions.
Americans are apt to make censure on the other party of a negotiation, especially when the negotiation is out of their expectation。 This is because they always think they are right all the time and doing reasonable things. They are lack of tolerance and understanding of other. They speak loud and fast。 They seldom say sorry to others. They like taking themselves as the center of everything and expecting other people to do things as they wish. Their behavior in negotiations leaves an impression of being rude, arrogant and aggressive to the oriental。
4.1.2 Values
In the United States, there are strong values regarding independence, freedom and individual equality。 The sense of personal freedom is very strong. Individuals are not necessarily constrained to a particular social class, location or economic group by birth. As a result, individuals strive to achieve personal goals, seek personal autonomy and often prefer to act as individuals rather than as a member of a group. Individuals are being empowered as decision-makers for their group, division or companies. Their communication pattern tends to be present—oriented, self—oriented and action—oriented.
They place great value on time。 Using time efficiently is a critical goal and admired skill。 They do not like “meaningless” talk even in very important negotiations. They will tend to be impatient when process of negotiation slows down。
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If you are wasting their time, they will think you are stealing their money, because in the American thought, “Time is money。\" They cherish time very much and are always punctual。 Another manifestation of the American businesspersons cherishing time is that they prefer to do things orderly and set up plans well in advance and they do not like uninvited guests with no appointments beforehand。 It is both impolite to arrive early or late when you come to the appointment with an American. To them, foreigners who do not respect this time orientation are viewed as less professional or less sophisticated than those who do。
Americans pay attention to the contracts and rely on law。 They take business contracts purely as they are and they cannot bear the mixture of business and friendship. No matter in what good relations, even between a father and a son, it should be absolutely clear in the economic interests。 Hereby, Americans cannot understand the Chinese traditional ideas that old friends should provide more preferential treatments and more benefits to each other。
4。1。3 Decision-making Process
In the American view, a business negotiation is a problem—solving activity, the solution being a deal that suits both parties。
When faced with a complex negotiation task, Americans tend to divide the large task into a series of smaller tasks。 They may settle one issue at a time, with the final agreement being the sum of the smaller agreements。 For them, process in the negotiation is measured by how many issues have been settled.
The decision making process is just like a cost-benefit analysis applied to all parties who would be touched by the decision。 A decision can produce the greatest net profit when all the costs and benefits to all the affected parties are taken into account is considered as a right decision. So, the Americans usually list the possible effects and estimate their costs and benefits as accurately as possible。
4.2 The Japanese Negotiation Style
The experts of negotiation in the world have the unanimous agreement that Japanese are the most successful negotiators。 Japanese culture teaches Japanese people to put individual desire into harmony with and submit to collective decision. Therefore, Japanese people take it as the most important to seek the harmony of human relations. And any business negotiation held under such circumstances will be going on all right.
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The Japanese personality generally is self—confident and flexible。 They are diligent, thrift and cautious.
4.2.1 Language and Communication
In Japanese culture, indirect and vague expression is more acceptable than direct and specific references。 They are very keen on saving face both for themselves and for the others in any situation。 Japanese people never turn down any offer directly。 “Ha Yi\", the meaning of which is YES in a dictionary, is the most popular word that Japanese when they are listening to the other side of the negotiation expressing their standpoints, providing their offers and even bargaining。 They do not mean it when they say “Ha Yi\"。 What they want to express is “go on please, we are listening.\" This phenomenon greatly confuses many foreigners who have got in contact with Japanese for the first time。 Avoid direct communication on money issues, leave this to the go—between or lower position staff. Try not to praise your products or services directly, let your literature or go-between do that。
Traditionally, it was considered disrespectful and dangerous to look into another person’s eyes。 Even today, the majority of Japanese avoid the embarrassing direct eye contact with negotiators on the other side。 They feel not comfortable with too much direct eye contact from the other side。 Thus Chinese negotiators may think that something must be wrong, because the Japanese won’t look at them in the eye, as we take this as an ordinary source of information about the other person’s feelings.
4。2。2 Values
The Japanese are more family and group oriented than of individualism. Group leadership is regarded more than individual initiative.
Saving face and achieving harmony are more important factors in business dealings for the Japanese than achieving higher sales and profits。 Japanese people pay so much attention to establishing the good human relations in doing business that many experts of negotiation think that friendship and trust are very important to advance good cooperation with them.
Sending gifts is the most popular phenomenon of Japanese society. It is a way of showing courtesy, the ardor of entertaining guests and expressing regard, and an intention to establish profound friendship。 The value of gifts given to the Japanese should be equal to their positions and there should be a difference between the gifts
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president and vice president. Otherwise, the former would have a feeling of being insulted and the latter would feel embarrassed.
The patience that the Japanese shows in negotiation is well known in the world. The Japanese patience does not mean slowness, but careful decision, adequate preparation, thorough consideration and step-by—step negotiation。 For obtaining an ideal transaction, they can wait for two or three months with no complain at all, as long as they can reach their set goal and a better outcome. Time is not the first thing for them。 Japanese's patience in business negotiations has something to do with their attention to establishing trustworthy personal relationship, which they think takes time to examine. They are not used to the way the occidental people handle business with no attention to human feelings。
4。2。3 Decision—making Process
In general, decision—making in Japan is a communal affair requiring unanimous approval by management。 In this decision-making style, everyone must be convinced, not just the key decision-maker。
Most Japanese companies use some form of a system of decision—making known as document system。 A manager who is in the lower ranks of management drafts a proposal after achieving consensus within his own group。 The proposal is circulated to the heads of other sections and departments. If they approve, they stamp their name seals on it。 If they disapprove, they either refuse to stamp it or put their seals on it upside down。 In either event, the document is then passed up through the different levels of management until it reaches the president. If everyone stamps the proposal, it becomes company policy. If all do not stamp it, it is usually sent back to its originator with certain suggestion. Although Japanese people need quite a long time to make decision, their actions are very quick once the decision are set。
4.3 The German Negotiation Style
The industry in Germany is well developed and with high productivity. The first—class quality of their products in the world, which they are very proud of, is mainly due to the exactness and concreteness of their industry’s technology criteria. Accordingly, they often take their own products as the criteria when making purchase from other countries。 So, if you want to do business with them, your products must satisfy their requirement.
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Prudence and earnestness are the key characteristics of German people’s negotiation style. They attach importance to and stress the feasibility of their scheme and seldom give big concession to the others, for they firmly believe that their quotation is reasonable.
4。3。1 Language and Communication
Many Germans speak excellent English, whereas it is rare to find a non-German who speaks excellent German. The German language is difficult, so do not overlook using translator, no matter how proficient you are in German. Sometimes, through their body languages, you can guess the meanings. You must know their cultural background, it is very helpful for you to communicate with them smoothly.
4.3。2 Values
German people are well worthy of the name of being efficient。 Their motto is “do it right away” and they do not like the way of waffling in negotiations。 They are highly responsible and efficient in their work and you will never see piles of documents on German people’s desks. German people judge whether a person is competent or not, just go to see the efficiency of his handling things。
Conservatism is an outstanding feature of the business culture. Security is valued greatly in Germany. So negotiator need to feel secure in the knowledge of the task they have delegated. Decisions are made after careful, thorough and precise analysis, so that risks are minimized.
Time schedules are strictly adhered by the Germans。 Punctual delivery means on the day precisely。 Formality is a necessary sign of respect。 Business is serious business。 These are the values that pervade the society and are the foundation on which German businessmen build。
Germans are very pragmatic people, and they look for concrete, technical evidence of excellence and superior performance in products。 Promises showcased in elaborate presentations do not carry them away。 Your product or service must be proven to be superior in order for it to sell to the Germans。 So, arm yourself with all the data and documentation you can get。
Whenever German negotiators express their agreement orally, they will stick to their words. Ultimately, they will put their oral agreements into writings. All the provisions are quite specific。 It is always better to have the assistance of a German
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lawyer in drafting the contract and checking that its provisions conform to your oral agreement。 Be precise in your wording of the contract. The Germans will especially appreciate that.
4。3。3 Decision—making Process
There is a big gap between the top and bottom in large German corporations。 Regardless of the size of the organization, decision-making is centralized。 As a general rule, power remains at the top. One—person decision—making is even more common in medium and small size firms。 Large organization use committees to arrive at decisions. Germans tend to arrive at decisions rather slowly。
5. Conclusion
From the above, we can see clearly that there are many differences in negotiation styles between eastern and western countries. We can see clearly that they have different ways of communication, values and decision-making process. They are all based on cultural differences。 The thesis can help us to understand their cultures, and then get a perspective of their negotiation styles. Mastering different negotiation styles can build a good negotiation atmosphere, provide basis for negotiation tactics and improve the quality of the negotiation。 The negotiation style plays an important role in negotiation, and it matters whether the success or failure of negotiation。 Sometimes, details decide all, so negotiator must perfect every aspect around the negotiation in order to win more opportunities.
If we cannot change the cultural differences, we must adapt ourselves to the environment in order to control the situation and win the contract finally。
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毕业论文选题
1. 2. 3. 4. 5. 6. 7.
英语中的汉语借词研究/A Study of Chinese Loanwords in English。 母语在英语教学中扮演的角色/The Role of Mother Tongue in ELT.
肢体语言在英语教学中的运用/The Use of Body Language in English Teaching. 广告语言/The Language of Advertisement.
论小学(或初中)英语口语教学On Spoken English Teaching in Primary /Junior School。 在英语学习中如何激发学生的兴趣/How to Spark Students’ Interests in English Learning. 论提高学生的语音和语调的重要性/On the Importance of Improving Students’ Pronunciation and Intonation.
8. 英语课堂中的艺术/The Art of Questioning in English Class
9. 论如何活跃课堂气氛/On How to Enliven the Atmosphere of English Class。 10. 论英语词汇教学/On English Vocabulary Teaching。
11. 如何突破英语口语障碍/How to Break Through the Obstacle in English Speaking。 12. 论如何提高英语阅读能力/ On How to Improve English Reading Ability。 13. 关于英语听力教学/On English Listening Teaching。
14. 论母语对外语学习的影响/The Influence of Mother Tongue on Foreign Language Learning. 15. 英语歌曲在英语教学中的运用/The Application of English Songs in English Teaching。 16. 语言、思想和文化/Language, Thought and Culture. 17. 肢体语言/Body Language.
18. 委婉语简析/Interpretation of Euphemism.
19. 论英语交际中的文化障碍/On Cultural Obstacles in English Communication。 20。 论习语的翻译/On Translation of Idioms.
21 浅谈文化差异与英汉翻译/An Analysis of Cultural Differences and Translation Between
English and Chinese。
22. 浅谈商业广告英语翻译/On Commercial Advertising English Translation. 23. 论专有名词的翻译/On Translation of Proper Names: 24. 定语从句的翻译/On Translation of Attributive Clause。 25. 颜色词的翻译/The Translation of Color Words。
26。 直译和意译之比较/The Comparison Between Literal Translation and Free Translation. 27。 翻译中的表达与理解/Expression and Understanding in Translation。 28。 人名的翻译/Translation of Person's Names。
29. 公司和产品名称的翻译/Translations of Names and Products of Companies。 30. 数字的翻译/The Translation of Numbers.
31 书籍和电影名称的翻译/Translation of Titles of Books and Films。
32 英汉成语比较和翻译/The Comparison and Translation of English and Chinese Set Phrases。 33 跨文化交际与英语教学/Cross—Cultural Communication and English Teaching。
34 中英动物文化内涵对照/The Cultural Connotations of Animals in Chinese and English。
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35 肢体语言的文化差异/Cultural Differences in Body Language。
36 电视与生活---—电视对人们生活的积极影响和消极影响/TV and Our Life--—Positive and
Negative Effects of TV on People's Life.
37 广告英语中的语言特点/The Linguistic Features of Advertising English。 38 英语教学中的文化教育/Cultural Education in English Teaching。
39 中美婚姻观比较/The Contrast Between Sino-American Marriage Concepts.
40谈英美国家姓名文化内涵和历史渊源/On the Cultural Connotations and Historical Origin of
Names in US and UK.
41论中西方饮食文化差异/On Differences of Chinese and Western Dietary Cultures。 42中美家庭价值观的差别/The Differences of Family Values between China and American
43 从日常交流看中西方文化差异/On Chinese and Western Cultural Differences in Daily
Communication.
44 从春节和圣诞节透视中西方文化的差异/Chinese and Western Cultural Differences
Reflected Through Comparison Between Spring Festival and Christmas. 45 不同文化中的问候语/Greetings in Different Cultures.
46 中西方人际交往中的文化差异/Cutural Differences in Sino—Western Interpersonal
Relationships。
47 由禁忌语看中英文化差异/Cultural Differences Reflected Through the Comparison Between
Chinese and English Taboos。
48 谚语中的中美文化差异/The Similarities and Differences of Sino—American Cultures in Proverbs。
49. 商务英语的语言特点及文体风格/Linguistic Feature and Style of Business English. 50. 美国人的家庭观/The Family Conception of Americans.
51. 中美文化差异与英语学习/Chinese and American Culture Differences and English Learning。
52. 论中外“时间的语言”/Foreign and Chinese “Language of Time”.
53. 中西方不同文化影响下企业员工价值观的差异/On the Different Values of the Staff Under
The Impact of Different Cultures of China and the Weat.
54。 英汉姓名命名原则的文化内涵/On the Cultural Connotation of English and Chinese Naming
Principles.
55。 浅谈英语教学中的师生关系/On Teachers—Students Relationship in English Teaching。 56。 创造英语学习的环境/Creating English Learning Environments 57. 英语教学中的激励举措/Motivation for English Teaching 58. 英语学习中的兴趣/The Interest of English Learning
59. 基于多媒体的英语教学/The English Teaching Based on Multimedia
60。 如何有效地学习英语词汇/How to Learn English Vocabulary Effectively 61. 商品名称翻译初探
62. 如何提高英语写作能力/How to Improve the English Writing Ability 63。 浅谈英语的历史变迁/On English Language Historical Changes
64. 广告英语中的语言特点/The Linguistic Characteristics of Advertising English
65。 广告语言中中西方文化的价值观/Chinese and Western Culture Values in Advertising
Language
66。 经济全球化对世界文化的影响/The Impact of Economic Globalization on World Culture
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67. 中英文化的异同/The Similarities and Differences between Chinese and English Culture 68. 英国英语与美国英语的差异/Differences Between American and British English 69。 商标翻译与文化/The Translation of Trade Marks and Culture 70。 头衔的特点与翻译/The Character of Title and Translation
71。 翻译实践中的社会和文化因素/The Social and Cultural Factors in Translation Practice 72。 何为理想的翻译?/What is an Ideal Translation?
73. 以翻译为手段学习外语/Learning a Foreign Language Through Translation 74。 使用电脑优化英语教学Using Computer to Optimize English Teaching
75. 如何培养学生的跨文化交际能力/How to Cultivate Students’ Intercultural Communicative Competence
76. 如何正确地使用英语词典有效地学习英语?How to Use English Dictionaries to Improve
English Effectively?
77. 终生教育/Lifelong Education
78。 改革开放以来涌现的汉语新词汇的英译问题 79。 英语教学活动中作业布置法的实践与研究 80. 。如何搞好英语课外活动 81。 商品名称翻译初探
82. 《商务英语的特点及翻译技巧》 83。 《商务英语函电翻译技巧》
84。 商务英语专业毕业生就业岗位之探讨 85. 浅谈涉外合同英语特色
86。 商务英语信函中的礼貌表现 87。 商务英语学习的几点体会
88。 试论普通英语与商务英语的差异 89。 浅谈商务英语口语的学习方法 90。 国际贸易中英语的作用 91. 商务英语学习中的文化习得 92。 商务英语与商务交际
93。 商务英语中的委婉表达及其翻译 94. 外资企业外语人才素质现状及要求 95. 社会需求与英语学习的转轨
96. 高职高专院校商务英语专业学生在人才市场竞争中的优势和劣势 97. 试论进出口业务中价格术语的选择
98。 得体的社交礼仪在商务活动中的重要性 99。 商务英语学习的几点体会 100. 现代英语词汇迅速发展的源泉
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